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Climate and Country
Wealth
A. Why are some
countries stupendously rich and others
horrendously poor? Social theorists have
been captivated by this question since
the late 18th century, when Scottish economist
Adam Smith
argued in his magisterial
work The Wealth of Nations that the best
prescription for prosperity is a
free-
market
economy
in
which
the
government
allows
businesses substantial
freedom
to
pursue
profits.
Smith,
however,
made
a
second
notable
hypothesi
s:
that
the
physical
geography
of
a
region
can
influence
its
economic
performance.
He
contended
that
the
economies
of
coastal
regions, with their
easy access to sea trade, usually outperform the
economies of inland areas.
B.
Coastal
regions
and
those
near
navigable
waterways
are
indeed
far
richer
and more
densely
settled than interior regions, just as
Smith predicted. Moreover, an
area
‘
s climate can also
affect its
economic development.
Nations in tropical climate zones generally face
higher rates of infectious
disease and
lower agricultural productivity (especially
for staple foods) than do nations in
temperate zones. Similar burdens apply
to the desert zones. The very poorest regions in
the world
are those saddled with both
handicaps:
distance from sea
trade and a tropical or
desert ecology,
The basic lessons of geography are
worth repeating, because most economists have
ignored them.
In the past decade the
vast majority of papers on economic development
have neglected even the
most obvious
geographical realities.
C.
The
best
single
indicator
of
prosperity is
gross
national
product
(GNP)
per capita--
the
total
value
of
a
country
‘
s
economic
output,
divided
by
its population.
A
map showing
the
worl
d
distribution
of
GNP
per capita
immediately
reveals
the
vast
gap
between
rich
and
poor
nations.
The great
majority of the poorest countries lie in the
geographical tropics. In contrast, most of the
richest countries lie
in the
temperate zones. Among the 28 economies
categorized as high income
by
the
World
Bank,
only
Hong
Kong,
Singapore
and
part
of
Taiwan
are
in
the
tropical
zone,
representing a mere 2 percent of the
combined population of the high-income regions.
Almost all
the temperate-zone
countries have either high-income, economies
(as in the cases of North
America,
Western
Europe,
Korea
and
Japan)
or
middle-income
economies
(as
in
the
cases
of
Eastern Europe, the former
Soviet Union and China). In addition,
there is a strong
temperate-
tropical
divide within countries that
straddle both types of climates. Most of Brazil
for
example lies within the
tropical zone, but the richest part of the nation
--the southernmost states--is
in the temperate zone.
D. There are
two major ways in which a
region
‘
s climate affects
economic development. First, it
affects
the
prevalence
of
disease.
Many
kinds
of
infectious
diseases
are
endemic
to
the
tropical
and subtropical
zones. This tends to be true of diseases in which
the pathogen spends part of its
life
cycle
outside
the
human
host:
for
instance,
malaria
(carried
by
mosquitoes)
and
helminthic
infections
(caused by parasitic worms). Although epidemics of
malaria have occurred sporadically
as
far north as Boston in the past century, the
disease has never gained a
lasting
foothold
in the
temperate
zones,
because
the
cold
winters
naturally
control
the
mosquito-based
transmission
of
the disease. Winter could thus be
considered the world
‘
s most
effective public health intervention,
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It
is
much
more
difficult
to
control
malaria
in
tropical
reasons,
where transmission
takes
place
year-round and affects
a large part of the population.
E. According to the World
Health Organization, 300 million to 500 million
new cases of malaria
occur every year,
almost entirety concentrated in the
tropics.
Widespread illness
and
early
deaths
obviously
hold
back
a
nation
‘
s
economic
performance
by
significantly
reducing
worker
productivity. But
there are also long-term effects that may be
amplified over time through various
social feedbacks. A high incidence of
disease can alter the age structure of a
country
‘
s population.
Societies
with
high
levels
of
child
mortality
tend
to
have
high
levels
of
fertility:
mothers
bear
many
children
to
guarantee
that
at
least
some
will
survive
to
adulthood.
Y
oung
children
will
therefore constitute a large
proportion of that
country
‘
s population.
With so many
children, poor
families
cannot
invest
much
in
each
child
‘
s
education.
High
fertility
also
constrains
the
role
of
women in society, because child reading
takes up so much of their adult lives.
F. Moreover temperature affects
agricultural productivity. Of the major food
grains
－
wheat, maize
and rice
－
wheat
grows only in temperate climates, and maize and
rice crops are generally more
productive in temperate and subtropical
climates than in tropical zones. On average,
a hectare of
land in the
tropics yields 2.3 metric tons of maize, whereas a
hectare in the temperate zone yields
6.
4 tons. Farming in tropical rainforest
environments is hampered by the fragility of the
soil: high
temperatures mineralize the
organic materials, and the intense rainfall
leaches them out of the soil.
In
tropical
environments
that
have
wet
and
dry
seasons
－
such
as
the
African
savanna-farmers
must
contend
with
the
rapid
loss
of
soil
moisture
resulting
from
high
temperatures,
the
great
variability
of
precipitation,
and
the
ever
present
risk
of drought.
Moreover,
tropical
environments
are
plagued
with
diverse
infestations
of
pests
and
parasites
that
can
devastate
both
crops
and
livestock.
G
.
Moderate
advantages
or
disadvantages
in
geography can
lead
to
big
differences
in
long-term
economic
performance. Favorable agricultural of health
conditions may boost per capita income in
temperate-zone
nations
and
hence
increase
the size
of
their
economies.
The resulting
inventions
further
raise
economic
output,
spurring
yet
more
inventive
activity.
The
moderate
geographical
advantage is
thus amplified through innovation. In contrast,
the low food output per farm worker
in
tropical regions tends to diminish the size of
cities. With a smaller proportion of the
population
in urban areas, the rate of
technological advance is usually
slower. The tropical regions therefore
remain more rural than the temperate
regions, with most of their economic activity
concentrated in
low-technology
agriculture rather than in high-technology
manufacturing and services.
H.
Geographical factors, however, are only part of
the story. Social, land economic institutions are
critical
to
long-
term
economic
performance.
It
is
particularly
instructive
to
compare
the
post
World
War II
performance
of
socialist
and
free-market
economies
in
neighboring
countries
that
share the same geographical
characteristics:
North
and South Korea, East
and
West Germany, the
Czech
Republic
and
Austria,
and
Estonia
and
Finland.
In
each
case
we
find
that
free-market
institutions vastly outperformed their
counterparts.
I. If these findings are true, the
policy implications are significant. Aid programs
for developing
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countries will have to
be revamped to specifically address the problems
imposed by climate
and
geography. In particular, new
strategies have to be formulated that would help
nations in tropical
zones raise their
agricultural productivity and reduce the
prevalence of diseases such as malaria.
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Medieval T
oys and
Childhood
A. This toy knight
comes from a rich harvest of archaeological finds,
made in the mudbanks of the
River
Thames
in
London
during
the
Jest
30
years.
It
was
manufactured
in
about
1300,
and
illustrates
several
facets
of
medieval
childhood.
Then
as
now,
children
liked
playing
with
toys.
Then
as now, they had a culture of their own,
encompassing slang, toys, and games. Then as now,
adults
cored
for
children
and
encouraged
their
play.
An
adult
made
this
toy
and
another
adult
bought it t for a
child, or gave a child money to buy it. The toy
knight was made from a mould,
and
produced
in
large
numbers. It
probably circulated
among
the
families
of
merchants,
shopkeepers, and
craft workers, as well as those of the nobility
and gentry, The finds also include
toys
that girls might have liked: little cups, plates,
and jugs, some sturdy enough to heat up water
by a fireside, There is even a self-
assembly kit: a cupboard cut out of a sheet of
soft metal, instead
of the plastic that
would be used today
. Toys give us a
positive view of medieval childhood.
B.
Medieval
toys
might
be
home-
made
by
adults
with
time
on
their
hands,
fashioned
by
the
children
themselves,
or
bought
from
wandering
peddlers
or
merchants
at
fairs
–
even
ordered
specially
from the most
children once
their usefulness as
fashion models was past. Naturally, the
types and magnificence of the toys
varied with the status of the recipient.
C.
Many
of
the
dolls
sold
in
England
came
from
abroad, chiefly
from
Germany
and
Holland,
although very
fancy
dolls were sold in the
Palais du
Justice, alongside
other expensive luxuries.
However, the
industry was slow to develop into a
guild, hampered partly
by
its own rules- toys
had to
be finished by the appropriate masters, and thus
could not be made all in one workshop, for
instance. There was also the hindrance
that toy making was for a long time considered an
addition
to
a
?
real
‘
trade,
and
to
a great
extent
left
to
the local
craftsmen
in
their
spare
time,
rather
than
quickly
becoming
an
industry
of
its
own,
as was
the
case
in
many
other
fields.
However,
dolls
among
other
toys
appear
to
have
been
traded
on
a
small
but
constant
and
gradually
increasing
level throughout the Middle Ages and
Renaissance. Dockenmacher
(
?
doll-
makers
‘
) are recorded in
Nuremberg from 1413, and their very
existence indicates the rising importance of the
toy trade on
both the local and the
international scene.
D. Written sources for the existence of
toys, and to some extent of their type and
manufacture, are
fairly
plentiful, from legal records, to poetry
describing the age of innocence, and sermons on
the
immature behavior of
the socialites of the day. Most pictorial sources
are generally
later, but one
drawing survives from around 1200,
which shows two youths playing with a pair of foot
soldiers.
The warriors appear to be on
strings, enabling them to be pulled back and forth
in semblance of
battle.
Boys
are often shown
in illustrations
playing with such warrior dolls, and various
jousting
figures
survive
which
show
the
perfection
of
articulated
armour
and
fine
horse-
trappings
which
could be
achieved in a boy
‘
s
plaything. In portraiture of the sixteenth
century, noble girls are often
pictured
holding exquisitely dressed dolls. Possibly bought
new for the sitting as them seem fresh
from the box and neither grubby nor
worn down with use. These dolls are likely to be
accurately
painted rather than
idealized, as the sitters themselves often were,
so it must be assumed that such
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dolls
were
indeed
artistically
finished,
beautifully
attired
and
painted
with
the
most
delicate
of
features. In contrast,
the seventeenth-century painting of a peasant
family, by Adriane van Ostade,
offers
proof that children of more humble origins also
played with dolls.
E.
Archaeological
evidence
is
more
widely
available
than
might
at
first
be
thought.
Naturally,
more
survives,
the
closer we
get
to
modern
times,
and
the
material
of
which
dolls
were
made
doubtless
influences our
picture
of
their history. From
Viking settlements
in
the
far
north a
few
dolls
have
been
separated
from
the
multitude
of
figures
identified
by
the
experts
as
idols
and
funerary figures. Some heads and limbs
have been found, which may once have had cloth
bodies,
although
it
is
uncertain
whether
these
were
designed
as
toys
or
votive
offerings.
Although
no
surviving
pieces
have
thus
far
been
uncovered, wealthy
Anglo-Saxon
children
in
England
may
have
entertained
themselves
with
carved
alabaster
dolls,
a
substance
which
had
been
used
for
doll-making
since
the
Roman
occupation, while
poorer
children
of
this
age
would
have
owned
wooden or cloth dolls.
F.
Dating
from
as
early
as
the
13
th
century,
items
unearthed
from
the
mudbanks
of
the
River
Thames
include
tiny cannons
and
guns,
metal figurines, and
miniaturized
household
objects such
as
stools,
jugs,
cauldrons,
and
even
frying
pans
complete
with
little
fish.
Made
mainly
from
pewter
(a tin-lead alloy).
These medieval
toys
are exceptionally
rare and
have helped
transform
perceptions
of
childhood
during
the
Middle
Ages,
says
Hazel
Forsyth,
curator
of
post-medieval
collections at the Museum
of
London.
―
In the 1960s French
historian
Philippe
Aries
claimed that
there
wasn
‘
t really
such
a
thing
as childhood
in
the
Middle
Ages
and
that
parents
didn
‘
t from
emotional
attachments
with
their
offspring,
regarding
them
as
economic
providers
or
producers
for
the
household.
‖
Forsyth said.
Aries
pioneered ways
of
looking beyond tings, politics, and war
to everyday medieval life. He argued
that parents invested little emotional capital in
their children
because they had lots of
offspring, many of them died in infancy, and that
surviving children were
sent to work at
the ages of six or seven.
G
.
Aries
‘
s views had a lot of
currency. And for very many years, people took it
for granted. It has
only been recently,
with discovery of ancient childhood items by
contemporary treasure hunters,
that
we
‘
ve challenged this
received wisdom.
―
Surprise,
surprise, human
nature
doesn
‘
t change.
‖
Forsyth said: Some parents from the
Middle
Ages were very devoted to their
children and gave
them every luxury and
pleasure they could afford.
‖
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Brain Gymnastics
a.
Hundreds
of
fans
heard
Prof.
Greenfield
speak
at
a
public
lecture.
Britain
‘
s
most
famous
neuroscientist
whose
Mind
Gym
training
programmes
have
worked
with
over
100
well-known
companies
including
Microsoft,
Barclays
Bank,
Guinness
and
Proctor
and
Gamble,
Prof.
Susan
Greenfield
dismissed
the
idea
tossed
around
by scientists for
decades
that we
use
less
than
one
quarter of our brains.
In fact, she said our brains could be exercised
like our muscles and could
grow
and
perform
at
maximum capacity--we
just
had
to
go
to
the
metaphorical
gym.
?
We all
know
what it feels like to fall on the couch in a heap,
well, your brain falls on a couch as well if
you don
‘
t
exercise it,
‘
she said
yesterday.
?
Memory is not
lost, your brain just remembers what is
important to
you at the time
－
and
what
‘
s not important is
pushed into the background.
‘
b. Our understanding of the brain has
developed enormously over the past 20 years. Since
we can
now
?
see
‘
brain activity through MRI
scans and other medical technology, we
can now begin to
see what happens when
we think and when we
think different
kinds of thought. As
neurologists
tell
us
more
about
the
brain
we
can
apply
that
knowledge
to
construct
optimum situations
for
learning. Each human
brain has 100 billion brain cells and each
cell has 100,000 potential
connections
to
any
other...
?
it would
take
you
32
million
years
at
one
per
second to count
the
connections even in the
outer layer of
your
brain
‘
. Greenfield tells us.
She adds the
good news,
?
Y
our brain is
configured exactly for you...it is the only part
of your body that can get better and
better-if used
‘
.
c.
There are three traditional views toward
creativity. The first view is that there is
nothing you can
do about it. New ideas
will come about by chance or by inspiration.
On this basis Newton may
never
have
come
to
his
ideas
on
gravity
if
an
apple
had
not
fallen
on
his
head.
The
second
traditional view is
that creativity
is a special talent
which some people have and others can only
envy. It is perfectly true that some
people are more motivated to be creative and also
have more
confidence in their creative
ability. Over time such people do
develop quite a creative skill. The
second view is that if you do not have
this special talent there is not much you can do
about it. The
third traditional view is
that being free and liberated will make a person
more creative. From this
belief
come
methods
like
brain-storming.
Y
ou
sit
around
feeling
free
and
generate
ideas.
It
can
work but is a very weak method. A
person whose hands are tied to his side cannot
play the violin.
But
cutting the rope does not make that person a
violinist. If you are inhibited it is indeed
difficult
to be creative.
But making you uninhibited does not itself make
you creative.
d. The brain is specifically designed
to be non-creative--and we should be grateful for
this. With
eleven
pieces
of clothing
there
are
39,916,800
ways
of
getting
dressed.
Trying
out
one
method
every
minute
would
take
seventy
six
years
of
life.
The
purpose
of
the
brain
is
to
make
stable
patterns for dealing with a stable
universe. That is why you can get dressed in the
morning, cross
the road, get to work,
read or write. All this depends on the standard
patterns formed in your brain.
In The
Mechanism of the Mind, EDWARD DE
BONO
described how
the nerve
networks in the
brain
organize
these
patterns from
incoming
information.
The
brain
is
a
self-organizing
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information system
which creates patterns. These patterns are not
symmetric, so the route from A
to
B
is not
necessarily the
same
as
the
route
from B
to
A.
From this
arises
the
phenomenon
of
humour which is by
far the
most significant behavior of the human brain--in
terms of indicating
the underlying
system.
e. So
for the first time in history we can understand
creativity. We can understand the logical basis
of
creativity
in
how
the
brain
works.
From
such
an
understanding
we can
derive
the
deliberate
tools of
thinking. These tools can be
learned
and used.
As
with any skill
(cooking or skiing for
instance) some
people will become more skilful than others. But
everyone can learn to be creative.
It
is not a mystical gift,
f. Nothing can hide the sense of new
frontiers of learning on the creative potential of
our brains.
There are a number of
provisos however. Susan Greenfield reminds us that
this is a new science
and we must not
rush too quickly from these early observations to
general conclusions. Ference
Marton in
Sweden and more recently Peter Honey, have
reminded us that there are different types
of learning. There is surface
learning, passive, often incomplete, motivated
by assessment
requirements,
dependent
upon memorizing
facts
and
procedures;
and there
is
deep
learning,
the
kind where the learner
intends to understand the material, link it to
other
learning, integrate and
organize it, learning which can be
transferred to other contexts and placed within a
wider frame
which might include
culture, critical thinking and values. Deep
learning
in other words is reliant
upon
deep
and
creative
thinking.
Even
more
recent
work
by Steven
Pinker
has
introduced
the
concept of the
?
unique
environment
‘
in support of
his notion that 50% of the difference between
each
of
us
is the
result
of
the
unique
interaction
between
our
brain
and
what
happens to
us
as
individual organisms from
conception onwards.
g. These and the works of many
other researchers have opened the field
of
intelligence
itself to
forensic examination and arrive at
theories which make education, and
particularly creative
education,
greatly
more
inclusive
than
old
definitions.
The
educational
implications
of
this
are
obvious
--many teachers, school
systems and
parents have struggled with the challenge of
motivating
and
teaching children
reading,
writing
and
arithmetic.
Learning
is
often
not
perceived
as
enjoyable and challenging but as frustrating and
drudgery
.
h. Combining these different findings
regarding
creativity
we
might
list
the following
conditions
most likely to generate
creativity in our pupils:
?
?
?
?
?
?
Early
opportunities to excel in at least one pursuit;
Early exposure to people
who take risks;
Enough [subject]
discipline to allow early mastery;
A
stretching environment;
Supportive
peers;
Acceptance of difference.
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Otters
Norse
mythology
tells
of
the
dwarf
otr
habitually
taking
the
form
of
an
otter.
In
some
Native
American cultures, otters are
considered totem animals. The time of
year associated with this
is
also
associated with
the
Aquarius
zodiac
house, which
is
traditionally
observed January
20-February
18. Indeed,
inhabiting
five
of
the continents
of
the world,
otters
are
truly
amazing
mammals. Offers are unique in
many ways. For instance, offers are the only
marine mammals to
have
fur
instead
of
blubber.
?
mere
are
thirteen
species
of
offers
alive
today.
There
used
to
be
fourteen,
but
the fourteenth
otter,
Maxwell
‘
s otter,
is
presumed
extinct
due
to
draining
of
their
waters to perform genocide in Iraq.
Otters are very smart; they are one of only a
handful of fool
using mammals. Sea
Offers use rocks to pry abalone off rocks and to
break open shells.
Otters have e dense layer 11,000
hairs/mm
2
, 650,000 hairs per
square inch of very
soft under fur
which, protected by their outer layer
of long guard hairs, keeps them dry under water
and traps a
layer of air to keep them
warm. All otters have long, slim, streamlined
bodies extraordinary grace
and
flexibility, and short limbs; in most cases they
have webbed paws. Most have sharp claws
to
grasp prey, but the short-clawed
otter of southern Asia has only vestigial
claws, and two
closely-related
species of African otter have no claws at alt:
the: species live
in the often muddy
rivers of Africa and Asia and locate
their prey by touch.
Offers
have
a
preference for rivers
and
lakes with clean transparent water,
a high
flow
rate
and
well-vegetated
steep
banks. Typical
vegetation
includes
mature
trees
and
woodland,
particularly
deciduous species, willow and alder
carr; scrub and tall
bank side
vegetation such as hawthorn,
blackthorn, bramble, and dog rose;
willow herb and reed and sedge bed The roots of
mature trees,
particularly
ash,
oak
and
sycamore,
provide
potential
holt
sites
and
read/sedge
beds
are
used
to
make
?
couches
‘
. Important feeding grounds
are associated with gravel
bottoms and
narrow
streams
or tributaries
since these
features are
optimal for
fish. Permanent, well-
vegetated
mid-channel
islands
provide secure
lying-up and breeding sites .
Additionally, ditches
and
ponds
provide
alternative
food
supplies
such
as
amphibians,
especially
during
the
winter
months
and
when
rivers are in flood.
Most otters have fish as the primary
item in their diet, supplemented by flogs,
crayfish and crabs;
some have become
expert at opening shellfish, and others will take
any available small mammals
or birds. The faeces of an otter is
referred to as scat. To survive
in the
cold waters where many
otters live,
they do not depend on their specialized fur alone:
they have very high metabolic rates
and
burn
up
energy
at
a
profligate
pace:
Eurasian
otters,
for
example,
must
eat
15%
of
their
body-weight a day; sea otters, 20% to
25%, depending on the temperature. This prey-
dependence
leaves otters very
vulnerable to prey depletion. In water as warm as
10
℃
on otter needs to catch
100g of fish per hour: less than that
and it cannot survive. Most species hunt for 3 to
5 hours a day
,
nursing
mothers up to 8 hours a day.
The
northern
river
otter
became
one
of
the
major
animals
hunted
and
trapped
for
fur
in
North
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沈阳环球雅思学校
SNOW
America after European contact. As one
of the most playful, curious, and active species
of otter,
they
have
become
a
popular
exhibit
in
zoos
and
aquaria,
but
unwelcome
on
agricultural
land
because they alter river banks for
access, sliding, and defense. River otters eat a
variety of fish and
shellfish, as well
as small
land mammals and birds. They
grow to 3 to 4 feet in length and weigh
from 10 to 30 pounds. Once found all
over North
America, they have become
rare or extinct in
most places,
although flourishing in some locations. Some
jurisdictions have made otters a
protected species in some areas, and
some places have otter sanctuaries, These
sanctuaries help ill
and injured otters
to recover.
Sea
otters
live
along
the
Pack
coast
of
North
America.
Their
historic
range
included
shallow
waters
of
the
Bering
Strait
and
Kamchatka,
and
as
for
south
as
Japan.
Unlike
most
marine
mammals {soars, for
example, or whales}, sea otters do not have a
layer of insulating blubber. Sea
otters
have some 200,000 hairs per square cm of skin, a
rich fur for which humans hunted them
almost to extinction. By the time the
1911 Fur Seal Treaty gave them protection, so few
sea otters
remained
that
the
fur
trade
had
become
unprofitable.
Sea
otters
eat shellfish
and other
invertebrates
(especially
dams, abalone, and sea
urchins I, and one
can frequently
observe them
using rocks as
crude teals le smash open shells. They grow to 2.
5 to 6 feat in length and weigh 25
to
60 pounds. Although once near extinction, they
have begun to spread again, starting
from
the
California coast.
Otters
also
inhabit
Europe.
In
the
United
Kingdom
they
occurred
commonly
as
recently
as
the
1950s,
but
have
suffered
a
dramatic
decline
since
then.
Populations
in
Hertfordshire
became
extinct
in
the
late
1970
‘
s, with
the
River
Mirnram
reputed
to
have
supported
the
last
breeding
female offer in Hertfordshire, at
Tewinbury in 1978. The cause of this national
decline was dried
persecution, the
accelerated loss and fragmentation of suitable
riparian habitats, due to agricultural
intensification
and
heavy
urbanization,
and
the
contamination of
wetland
systems
wi
th
organochlorine pesticides.
The
European
otter
has
received
full
legal
protection
in
England
and
Wales
since
1978.
It
is
included
in the wildlife and
Countryside
Act 1981, making
it
an offence to kill,
injure or take a
wild otter
without a
license; to intentionally
damage, destroy or obstruct a holt; or to disturb
an
otter
in
its
resting
place.
With
the
aid
of
a
number
of
initiatives,
by
1999
estimated
numbers
indicated a recovery
to under 1,000 animals. The UK
Biodiversity
Action Plan
envisages the re-
introduction of
otters by 2010 to all the UK rivers and coastal
areas that they inhabited in 1960. In
1991, two groups of captive bred otters
were released into Hertfordshire by The Offer
Trust. Both
release groups
consisted of two sisters and a male otter, it was
hoped that they would eventually
re-
colonize other rivers in
Hertfordshire.
But road kill deaths have become one of the
significant
threats to the success of
their re-introduction.
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