考研笔记：传播学专业英语

·

Collective behavior

refer to social processes and events which do not reflect existing social structure (laws, conventions,

and institutions), but which emerge in a

unclear, or when they contradict each other.

·

Symbolic interactionism

：

Symbolic Interaction, refers to the patterns of communication, interpretation and adjustment

between

individuals.

Both

the

verbal

and

nonverbal

responses

that

a

listener

then

delivers

are

similarly

constructed

in

expectation

of

how

the

original

speaker

will

react.

With

Symbolic

interactionism,

reality

is

seen

as

social,

developed

interaction

with

others.

People

do

not respond

to

this reality directly,

but rather

to

the

social

understanding of

reality.

Behavior

is

not

defined

by

forces

from

the

environment

such

as

drives,

or

instincts,

but

rather

by

a

reflective,

socially

understood meaning of both the internal and external incentives that are currently presented .Herbert Blumer (1969) set

out three basic premises of the perspective:

things.

the

society.

meanings

are

handled

in,

and

modified

through,

an

interpretative

process

used

by

the

person

in

dealing with the things he/she encounters.

·

The global village

：

In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought

to an end by what he called

culture. In this new age, humankind will move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a

base.

·

Understanding Media,the Extensions of Man

：

McLuhan proposed that media themselves, not the content they carry,

should be the focus of study

—

popularly quoted as

the medium is the message

affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content delivered over the medium, but by the characteristics of the

medium

itself.

More

controversially,

he

postulated

that

content

had

little

effect

on

society

—

in

other

words,

it

did

not

matter if television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, to illustrate one example

—

the effect of television

on society would be identical. All media are

extensions

·

：

< br>different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to

consume a medium.

·

Two-step flow of communication

：

states that media effects are indirectly established through the personal influence of

opinion leaders. The majority of people receive much of their information and are influenced by the media secondhand,

through the personal influence of opinion leaders. Opinion leaders are those initially exposed to a specific media content,

and who interpret it based on their own opinion. They then begin to infiltrate these opinions through the general public

who become

mainstream mass media. In this process, social influence is created and adjusted by the ideals and opinions of each specific

media

group,

and

by

these

media

group's

opposing

ideals

and

opinions

and

in

combination

with

popular

mass

media sources. Therefore, the leading influence in these opinions is primarily a social persuasion. The two-step flow of

communication

model

hypothesizes

that

ideas

flow

from

mass

media

to

opinion

leaders,

and

from

them

to

a

wider

population.

The

two-step

theory

refined

the

ability

to

predict

how

media

messages

influence

audience

behavior

and

explains why certain media campaigns do not alter audiences’ attitudes. This hypothesis p

rovided a basis for the multi-step

flow theory of mass communication.

·

Opinion leadership

：

The opinion leader is the agent who is an active media user and who interprets the meaning of

media messages or content for lower-end media users. Typically the opinion leader is held in high esteem by those who

accept his or her opinions. Merton distinguishes two types of opinion leadership: monomorphic and polymorphic. Typically,

opinion leadership is viewed as a monomorphic, domain-specific measure of individual differences, that is, a person that is

an

opinion

leader

in

one field

may

be

a

follower

in

another

field.

In

contrast,

polymorphic

opinion

leaders

are

able

to

influence

others

in

a

broad

range

of

domains.

Opinion

leaders

are

seen

to

have

more

influence

than

the

media

for

a

number of reasons. Opinion leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive. People do not feel they are being tricked

into

thinking

a

certain

way

about

something

from

someone

they

know.

However,

the

media

can

be

seen

as

forcing

a

concept on the public and therefore less influential. While the media can act as a reinforcing agent, opinion leaders have a

more changing or determining role in an individual’s opinion or action.

Opinion leaders are individuals who obtain more

media coverage than others and are especially educated on a certain issue. They seek the acceptance of others and are

especially motivated to enhance their social status.

·

Media imperialism

：

is a theory based upon an over-concentration of mass media from larger nations as a significant

variable in negatively affecting smaller nations, in which the national identity of smaller nations is lessened or lost due to

media homogeneity inherent in mass media from the larger countries. The Media Imperialism debate started in the early

1970s when developing countries began to criticise the control developed countries held over the media. The site for this

conflict

was

UNESCO

where

the

New

World

Information

and

Communication

Order

(NWICO)

movement

developed.

Supported by the MacBride report,

the large media companies should have limited access to developing countries.

·

Pseudo- environment

：

describes man’s inability to functionally perceive and accurately interpret the world: “The real

environment

is

altogether

too

big,

too

complex,

and

too

fleeting

for

direct

acquaintance”,

between

people

and

their

environment (reality). That people construct a

pseudo- environment

that is a subjective, biased, and necessarily abridged

mental image of the world; therefore, to a degree, everyone's pseudo-

environment is a fiction. Hence, people “live in the

same world, but think and feel in different ones”. Human

behavior is stimulated by the person’s pseudo

-environment and

then is acted upon in the real world. The chapter highlights some of the general implications of the interactions among

one’s

psychology,

environment,

and

the

mass

communications

media.

Often,

those

who

know

the

“real”

(true)

environment

construct

a

favorable,

fictitious

pseudo-environment

in

the

public

mind

to

suit

his

or

her

private

needs.

Propaganda is inherently impossible without a barrier of censorship

—

between the event and the public

—

thus, the mass

communication

media,

by

their

natures

as

vehicles

for

informational

transmission,

are

immutably

vulnerable

to

manipulation.

·

Agenda-setting theory

describes the

Essentially, the theory states that the more salient a news issue is - in terms of frequency and prominence of coverage - the

more important news audiences will regard the issue to be. Bernard Cohen observed that the press

much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.

·

Spiral

of

silence

：

propounded

by

the

German

political

scientist

Elisabeth

Noelle-Neumann.

Spiral

of

silence

theory

describes the process by which one opinion becomes dominant as those who perceive their opinion to be in the minority

do not speak up because they fear isolation from society.

Threat of Isolation

：

Spiral of silence begins with the threat of

isolation. In order to maintain structure in society, a

sufficient

level

of

agreement

on

values

and

goals.

Thus,

in

order

to

guarantee

agreement

and

maintain

social

order,

society threatens isolation for those individuals who violate the consensus.

Fear of Isolation

：

The fear of isolation is the

centrifugal

force

that

accelerates

the

spiral

of

silence.

Essentially,

people

fear

becoming

social

isolates

and

thus

take

measures

to

avoid

such

a

consequence.

This

assumption

was

primarily

based

on

early

experiments

in

conformity.

Willingness to Speak Out

：

Individuals tend to publicly express their opinions and attitudes when they perceive their view

to be dominant or on the rise. Conversely, when individuals perceive that their opinion is less popular or losing popularity,

they are less likely to voice it in public. The tendency of the one to speak up and the other to be silent starts off a spiraling

process which increasingly establishes one opinion as the dominant one. Over time, these changing perceptions establish

one opinion as predominant one and they change from the liquid state to a solid norm.

·

Knowledge gap hypothesis

：

The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis explains that knowledge, like other forms of wealth, is often

differentially

distributed

throughout

a

social

system.

Specifically,

the

hypothesis

predicts

that

“as

the

infusion

of

mass

media information into a social system increases, higher socioeconomic status segments tend to acquire this information

faster

than

lower

socioeconomic-status

population

segments

so

that

the

gap

in

knowledge

between

the

two

tends

to

increase rather than decrease”

·

Cultural studies

：

Cultural studies is an academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism. Characteristically

interdisciplinary, cultural studies provides a reflexive network of intellectuals attempting to situate the forces constructing

our daily lives. It concerns the political dynamics of contemporary culture, as well as its historical foundations, conflicts and

defining

traits.

Researchers

concentrate

on

how

a

particular

medium

or

message

relates

to

ideology,

social

class,

nationality, ethnicity, sexuality and/or gender, rather than investigating a particular culture or area of the world.

·

Cultivation theory

：

Cultivation theory is a social theory which examines the long-term effects of television. Cultivation

theory in its most basic form, then, suggests that exposure to television, over time, subtly