-
·
Collective behavior
refer to social processes and events
which do not reflect existing social structure
(laws, conventions,
and institutions),
but which emerge in a
unclear, or when
they contradict each other.
·
Symbolic
interactionism
：
Symbolic
Interaction, refers to the patterns of
communication, interpretation and adjustment
between
individuals.
Both
the
verbal
and
nonverbal
responses
that
a
listener
then
delivers
are
similarly
constructed
in
expectation
of
how
the
original
speaker
will
react.
With
Symbolic
interactionism,
reality
is
seen
as
social,
developed
interaction
with
others.
People
do
not
respond
to
this reality
directly,
but rather
to
the
social
understanding of
reality.
Behavior
is
not
defined
by
forces
from
the
environment
such
as
drives,
or
instincts,
but
rather
by
a
reflective,
socially
understood meaning of both the internal
and external incentives that are currently
presented .Herbert Blumer (1969) set
out three basic premises of the
perspective:
things.
the
society.
meanings
are
handled
in,
and
modified
through,
an
interpretative
process
used
by
the
person
in
dealing
with the things he/she encounters.
·
The global
village
：
In the early 1960s,
McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic
print culture would soon be brought
to
an end by what he called
culture. In
this new age, humankind will move from
individualism and fragmentation to a collective
identity, with a
base.
·
Understanding Media,the
Extensions of Man
：
McLuhan
proposed that media themselves, not the content
they carry,
should be the focus of
study
—
popularly quoted as
the medium is the
message
affects the society
in which it plays a role not by the content
delivered over the medium, but by the
characteristics of the
medium
itself.
More
controversially,
he
postulated
that
content
had
little
effect
on
society
—
in
other
words,
it
did
not
matter if
television broadcasts children's shows or violent
programming, to illustrate one
example
—
the effect of
television
on society would be
identical. All media are
extensions
·
：
< br>different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to
consume a medium.
·
Two-step flow of
communication
：
states that
media effects are indirectly established through
the personal influence of
opinion
leaders. The majority of people receive much of
their information and are influenced by the media
secondhand,
through the personal
influence of opinion leaders. Opinion leaders are
those initially exposed to a specific media
content,
and who interpret it based on
their own opinion. They then begin to infiltrate
these opinions through the general public
who become
mainstream mass
media. In this process, social influence is
created and adjusted by the ideals and opinions of
each specific
media
group,
and
by
these
media
group's
opposing
ideals
and
opinions
and
in
combination
with
popular
mass
media sources. Therefore, the leading
influence in these opinions is primarily a social
persuasion. The two-step flow of
communication
model
hypothesizes
that
ideas
flow
from
mass
media
to
opinion
leaders,
and
from
them
to
a
wider
population.
The
two-step
theory
refined
the
ability
to
predict
how
media
messages
influence
audience
behavior
and
explains why certain
media campaigns do not alter audiences’ attitudes.
This hypothesis p
rovided a basis for
the multi-step
flow theory of mass
communication.
·
Opinion
leadership
：
The opinion
leader is the agent who is an active media user
and who interprets the meaning of
media
messages or content for lower-end media users.
Typically the opinion leader is held in high
esteem by those who
accept his or her
opinions. Merton distinguishes two types of
opinion leadership: monomorphic and polymorphic.
Typically,
opinion leadership is viewed
as a monomorphic, domain-specific measure of
individual differences, that is, a person that is
an
opinion
leader
in
one field
may
be
a
follower
in
another
field.
In
contrast,
polymorphic
opinion
leaders
are
able
to
influence
others
in
a
broad
range
of
domains.
Opinion
leaders
are
seen
to
have
more
influence
than
the
media
for
a
number of reasons. Opinion
leaders are seen as trustworthy and non-purposive.
People do not feel they are being tricked
into
thinking
a
certain
way
about
something
from
someone
they
know.
However,
the
media
can
be
seen
as
forcing
a
concept
on the public and therefore less influential.
While the media can act as a reinforcing agent,
opinion leaders have a
more changing or
determining role in an individual’s opinion or
action.
Opinion leaders are individuals
who obtain more
media coverage than
others and are especially educated on a certain
issue. They seek the acceptance of others and are
especially motivated to enhance their
social status.
·
Media
imperialism
：
is a theory
based upon an over-concentration of mass media
from larger nations as a significant
variable in negatively affecting
smaller nations, in which the national identity of
smaller nations is lessened or lost due to
media homogeneity inherent in mass
media from the larger countries. The Media
Imperialism debate started in the early
1970s when developing countries began
to criticise the control developed countries held
over the media. The site for this
conflict
was
UNESCO
where
the
New
World
Information
and
Communication
Order
(NWICO)
movement
developed.
Supported by the
MacBride report,
the large media
companies should have limited access to developing
countries.
·
Pseudo-
environment
：
describes man’s
inability to functionally perceive and accurately
interpret the world: “The real
environment
is
altogether
too
big,
too
complex,
and
too
fleeting
for
direct
acquaintance”,
between
people
and
their
environment (reality). That people
construct a
pseudo-
environment
that is a subjective,
biased, and necessarily abridged
mental
image of the world; therefore, to a degree,
everyone's pseudo-
environment is a
fiction. Hence, people “live in the
same world, but think and feel in
different ones”. Human
behavior is stimulated by the person’s
pseudo
-environment and
then
is acted upon in the real world. The chapter
highlights some of the general implications of the
interactions among
one’s
psychology,
environment,
and
the
mass
communications
media.
Often,
those
who
know
the
“real”
(true)
environment
construct
a
favorable,
fictitious
pseudo-environment
in
the
public
mind
to
suit
his
or
her
private
needs.
Propaganda is inherently impossible
without a barrier of censorship
—
between the event and the
public
—
thus, the mass
communication
media,
by
their
natures
as
vehicles
for
informational
transmission,
are
immutably
vulnerable
to
manipulation.
·
Agenda-setting theory
describes the
Essentially,
the theory states that the more salient a news
issue is - in terms of frequency and prominence of
coverage - the
more important news
audiences will regard the issue to be. Bernard
Cohen observed that the press
much of
the time in telling people what to think, but it
is stunningly successful in telling its readers
what to think about.
·
Spiral
of
silence
：
propounded
by
the
German
political
scientist
Elisabeth
Noelle-Neumann.
Spiral
of
silence
theory
describes the process by which one
opinion becomes dominant as those who perceive
their opinion to be in the minority
do
not speak up because they fear isolation from
society.
Threat of
Isolation
：
Spiral of silence
begins with the threat of
isolation. In
order to maintain structure in society, a
sufficient
level
of
agreement
on
values
and
goals.
Thus,
in
order
to
guarantee
agreement
and
maintain
social
order,
society threatens isolation for those
individuals who violate the consensus.
Fear of
Isolation
：
The fear of
isolation is the
centrifugal
force
that
accelerates
the
spiral
of
silence.
Essentially,
people
fear
becoming
social
isolates
and
thus
take
measures
to
avoid
such
a
consequence.
This
assumption
was
primarily
based
on
early
experiments
in
conformity.
Willingness to
Speak Out
：
Individuals tend
to publicly express their opinions and attitudes
when they perceive their view
to be
dominant or on the rise. Conversely, when
individuals perceive that their opinion is less
popular or losing popularity,
they are
less likely to voice it in public. The tendency of
the one to speak up and the other to be silent
starts off a spiraling
process which
increasingly establishes one opinion as the
dominant one. Over time, these changing
perceptions establish
one opinion as
predominant one and they change from the liquid
state to a solid norm.
·
Knowledge gap
hypothesis
：
The Knowledge Gap
Hypothesis explains that knowledge, like other
forms of wealth, is often
differentially
distributed
throughout
a
social
system.
Specifically,
the
hypothesis
predicts
that
“as
the
infusion
of
mass
media information into a social system
increases, higher socioeconomic status segments
tend to acquire this information
faster
than
lower
socioeconomic-status
population
segments
so
that
the
gap
in
knowledge
between
the
two
tends
to
increase
rather than decrease”
·
Cultural
studies
：
Cultural studies is
an academic field grounded in critical theory and
literary criticism. Characteristically
interdisciplinary, cultural studies
provides a reflexive network of intellectuals
attempting to situate the forces constructing
our daily lives. It concerns the
political dynamics of contemporary culture, as
well as its historical foundations, conflicts and
defining
traits.
Researchers
concentrate
on
how
a
particular
medium
or
message
relates
to
ideology,
social
class,
nationality,
ethnicity, sexuality and/or gender, rather than
investigating a particular culture or area of the
world.
·
Cultivation
theory
：
Cultivation theory is
a social theory which examines the long-term
effects of television. Cultivation
theory in its most basic form, then,
suggests that exposure to television, over time,
subtly
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