语言学复习资料2013

)

and

pres criptive

(

规定式

)gram mars :

Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is

in

the

language,

while

prescriptive

grammars

tell

people

what should

be

in

the

modern

linguistics

is

descriptive.

It

attempts

to

describe

what

people

actually

say.

Traditional

grammars

is

prescriptive for it tell people how to use a language.

1.3.2 synchronic and diachronic linguistics

Synchronic

and

diachronic (historical) linguistics

: When we study language at one particular time, it is

called

synchronic

linguistics

共时语言学

.

When

we

study

language

developments

through

time,

it

is

called diachronic or historical linguistics

历史的

.

1.3.3 langue and parole

Langue and parole:

Lange refers to the abstract

抽象的

linguistic system shared by all the members of

a speech community.

Parole refer to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional

side

of

language,

while

parole

is

individualized

speech

.

Lange

is

the

code,

and

parole

is

the

message.-- Langue

is relatively

stable

and systematic, whereas

parole

is more

variable

and

may change

according to contextual factors. Parole and langue together constitute language.

1.3.4 competence and performance

Competence and performance

：

Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their

language as a system of abstract formal relations.

Performance

refers

to

their

actual

linguistic

behavior,

that

is,

the

actual

use

of

this

knowledge.

--Similarity: They both divide language into knowledge and behavior.

Difference: Chomsky’s

（乔姆斯基美语言学家转换生成语法创始人）

competence is a psychological

construct and Saussure’s langue is a set of social convention

惯例

.

1.3.5 syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

书

P17

第二章：

2.2.2 Voiced and voiceless sounds

Voiceless Sound:

when the vocal cords are apart,the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is

said to be ants

”

p,t,s f,k

”

are produced in this way.

-2-

Voiced

Sound:

when

the

vocal

cords

are close

together,the

airstream causes

them

to

vibrate

against

each other and the reluctant sound is said to be voiced,such as

“

b ,z,d,v,g

”

are vioiced consonants.

The distinction between

Voiceless Sound and Voiced Sound lies in the vibration of vocal cord.(

声带

)

2.2.4 consonants and vowels

定义、联系与区别

Consonants

辅音

: sounds produced by constricting

压缩

and obstructing the vocal tract at some place.

V

owels

元音

: sounds produced with no obstruction.

The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction airstream.(

气流是否受阻

)

The description of English consonants:

辅音描述

(

or voiceless

(2,place

of

articulation

发音部位

---B ilabial(

双唇音

):

[p]

[b]

[m]

[w],

Labiodental(

唇齿音

):

[f]

[v]

,Dental(

齿音

)

[

θ

]

[?

]

,alveolar(

齿龈音

):

[t]

[d]

[s]

[z]

[n]

[l]

[r],

Palatal(

腭音

):

[∫]

[з]

[t∫]

[dз

]

[j] ,V

elar(

软腭音

): [k] [g] [

η

],glottal(

喉 音

[h]

(3,manner of articulation

发音方法

---stop (

塞音

) [p] [b] [t] [d][k] [g] Fricative(

擦音

): [f] [v] [s] [z] [

θ

]

[?] [∫] [з

] [h] , affricate(

塞擦音

): [t∫] [dз

],liquid(

流音

): [l] [r] , nasal(

鼻音

): [m] [n] [

η

] glide(

滑音

): [w]

[j]

3. Classification of monophthongs

（

simple vowels

）

单元音的描述：

(

position of tongue

Front

vowels:

[i:]

[i]

[e]

[?

]

Central

vowels:

[

з

:]

[

?

]

[

∧

]

Back

vowels:

[u:]

[u]

[

?

:]

[?

]

[

α

:]

lips

are

rounded or not

---

Rounded vowels: [u:] [u] [

?

:] [?

], Unrounded vowels: [i:] [i] [e] [?

] [

з

:] [

?

] [

∧

] [

α

:]

openness of mouth

---Close vowels: [i:] [i] [u:] [u]

Central vowels: Semi-close vowels: [e] [

з

:], Central vowels : Semi- open vowels: [

?

] [

?

:] Open vowels:

[?

] [?

] [

α

:] [

∧

]

tenseness of the vowel

---Long vowels: [i:] [u:] [

α

:] [

з

:] [

?

:],Short vowels: [i] [u] [

?

] [?

]

[?

] [e] [

∧

]

2.2.5.2 assim ilation

的类型及其示例

（参考人文知识

P94

）

2.3 definition of phonology

Phonology studies the rules governing the

structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and

the

shape of syllables

2.3.1 phoneme vs. Phone

A

phone

语音单位

--

a

phonetic

unit

or

segment.

The

speech

sounds

we

hear

and

produce

during

linguistic

communication

are

all

phones.

Phone

is

the

realization

of

the

phoneme.

Phones

do

not

necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t.

A phoneme

音韵单位

--- is a phonological unit;

an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by certain phones in certain phonetic context.

-3-

it is a unit of distinctive value(A

phoneme is capable of distinguish meaning.)

2.3.3

allophone

和

free va riation

、

allomorph

等概念的联系与区别

(

找不到

)

Allophones

语位变体

/

音位变体

----the

phones

that

can

represent

a

phoneme

in

different

phonetic

environments.

2.3.4 distinctive features of phonemes< /p>

（参考书

P39

，人文知识

P93

）

第三章：

3.1 definition of morphology

形态学

Morphology,

as

a

branch

of

linguistics,is

thus the

study

of the

internal

structure,forms

and

classes

of

words.

3.2 definition of morpheme

A

morpheme

词素

:

is

a

minimal

unit

of

meaning

or

grammatical

function.

Words

are

composed

of

morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes

3.2.1 free morpheme, open class vs. closed class, lexical/content vs. functional, root(

不懂则参照

PPT)

m orphemes(

自由词位

/

自由语 素

)

Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have

complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. Therefore, we

might as well say that free morphemes are content/functional morphemes or free roots(

自由词根

).

morphemes can be divided into two categories.

Ordinary

nouns,

verbs,

and

adjectives

that

carry

the

content

of

messages

we

convey

—

lexical

morphemes, an open class.

Functional morphemes

, including function words such as conjunctions, articles

冠词

, prepositions and

pronouns

代词

,

a closed class.

以下内容帮助理解：

OPEN-- New words: taikonaut, microblog, 24/7(ad.)

CLOSED

—

he/she

In child talk, closed class words are often omitted.

3.2.2 bound morpheme, inflectional morpheme vs. derivational morpheme

定义及理解

1.

bound morpheme

cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words

Bound morphemes can be divided into

A. Bound roots

-4-