-
Chapter I Introduction Describing and
Explaining L2 Acquisition
1.1What is
second language acquisition?
Second
language refers to any language that is learned
subsequent to the mother tongue.
1.2What are the goals of second
language?
The goals of SLA are to
describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to
explain this process and why
some
learners seem to be better at it than others.
1.3Two case studies of L2
learners
1.3.1 A case study of an adult
learner
1.3.2 A case study of two child
learners
What do these case studies
show us?
a.
They
raise
a
number
of
important
methodological
issues
relating
to
how
L2
acquisition
should be
studied
b. They raise issues relating to the
description of learner language
c.
They
point
out
some
of
the
problems
researchers
experience
in
trying
to
explain
L2
acquisition.
1.4Methodological issues
What is that needs to be described?
a. What it means to say that a learner
has acquired a feature of the target language?
b. Whether learners have acquired a
particular feature?
c. How to measure
whether acquisition has taken place?
(Learner
’
s overuse of
linguistic forms.)
1.5Issues in the
description of learner language
a.
Learners make errors of different kinds.
b. Learners acquired a large number of
formulaic chunks, which will influence their
performance
in communication and the
fluency of their unplanned speech.
c. Whether learners acquire the
language systematically?
1.6Issues in
the explanation of L2 acquisition
Item
learning: formulaic chunks
System learning: rules
Internal (mentalist) account:
External account:
Chapter2
the Nature of Learner Language
2.1Errors and error analysis
2.1.1 Identifying errors
2.1.1.1 Compare the
learner
’
s language with the
normal ones.
2.1.1.2 Distinguish errors and
mistakes.
Definition:
Errors reflect gaps in a
learner
’
s knowledge
Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in
performance.
Methods:
a. Check the consistency of
learners
’
performance.
b. Ask them to correct their own
utterance.
Errors and mistakes:
2.1.2 Describing errors
Methods:
a.
error type oriented:
b.
error maker oriented:
Meaning:
Classifying
errors
in
these
ways
can
help
us
to
diagnose
learners
’
learning
problems at any one
stage of their development and, also to plot how
changes in error patterns
occur over
time.
2.1.3 Explaining
errors
Errors are systematic,
predictable, and some of them are universal:
(Learners has constructed
some kind of
“
rule
”
, albeit a rule different from that of the target
language)
Eg: omission: leave out the
article
“
the
”
,
leave out the
–
s in plural
nouns
Overgeneralization error: eated
---ate
Transfer errors reflect learners
attempt to make use of their L1 knowledge.
2.1.4 Error
evaluation
Types of errors:
Global errors: violate the whole
structure of the sentence
Local errors:
affect only a single constituent in the sentence
2.2Developmental patterns
2.2.1 The early stage of L2 acquisition
Silent period: children make no attempt
to say anything to begin with.
This
period makes a preparation for subsequent
production.
Trials
and
errors:
Mulaic
chunks:
they
provide
learners
with
the
means
of
performing
useful
language functions
such as greetings and requests.
Eg:
“
How do you
do?
”
“
My name
is___
”
Propositional simplification: leave
words out
Eg:
“
Me
no blue
”
2.2.2 The order of acquisition
Accuracy order: there is a definite
accuracy order and that this remains more or less
the same
irrespective of the
learner
’
s mother tongues,
age, and whether or not they have receive formal
language instruction.
2.2.3
Sequence of acquisition
a.
The
acquisition
of
a
particular
grammatical
structure,
therefore,
must
be
seen
as
a
process involving
transitional constructions.
b.
Acquisition follows a U shaped course of
development.
c.
The
process
in
which
learners
reorganize
their
existing
knowledge
in
order
to
accommodate new knowledge is called
restructuring.
2.2.4 Some Implications
a.
L2
is
systematic
and
universal,
reflecting
ways
in
which
internal
cognitive
mechanisms
control
acquisition, irrespective of the personal
background of learners or the settings in which
they learn.
b. Some
linguistic features are inherently easier to learn
than others.
2.3Variability
in learner language
a. Variability is
also
systematic
, that is,
learners use their linguistic sources in
predictable ways.
b. Learners vary in
their use of the second language according to
linguistic context (George playing
football/ ..all the time)
situational context.(kids/daughter)
& psycholinguistic context
(prepared/unprepared)
c. form-function
mapping
d. free variation:
e. fossilization:
石化成因
任何现象的出现都不是偶然
的
,
是可以追溯出它的原因的
,
二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化
现象也是有着根本性的原因的。
p>
Selinker
从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归
纳为五个过程
:
母语迁移、
培训转移、
二语学习策略、
二语交际策略和目的语
过度概括。
Selinker
对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要
表现
,
而没有找出石化的根本原因。
后
来
,Ellis
又对
Selinker
和
Lamendella
的研究作了如
下总结
:(1)
内因
:
年龄因素
:
即当学习者达到一定的关键期
,
他们的
大脑失去了可塑性
,
因而就无法掌握某些语言特征
;
缺乏
与目的语社会文化融合的欲望
:
由于
各
种不同的社会和心理因素
,
学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出
努力。
(2)
外因
:
< br>交际压力
:
持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学
习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。
缺乏学习机
会
:
学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的机会。反馈性质:对学生第二语言使用
的影响
:
肯
定的认知回馈
(
表示
“我明白你的话”
)
导致石化的发生
;
否定的回馈
(
表示
“我听不懂你的话”
)
有助于消除石化。
应对策略
(
一
)
增加二语的输入量
大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识
,
< br>就会出现语言的稳定期。所以外
语教学中
,
当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后
,
应该增加他的二
语输入量。二语的输入既要重
视数量又要重视质量。课堂教学材料要多样化
,
当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学
习动机
的语境和篇章
,
如报刊文章、海报、广告等。学生应尽可能多利
用课外听、说、读写
资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。第二语言的输入应该包括音
位知识、语法和词汇。
第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。
对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言
的标志性特征比较敏感
,
所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。这
样
,
为了避免石化
,
p>
语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化
,
找出存在于两种语言之间结构
表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。
(
二
)
融合听
、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知
以认知理论对二语学
习所做的分析为基础
,
针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主
要原因,
并借鉴
Brown
的建议
p>
,
针对中级学习者
,
我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教
学方法
:
第一种是以内容为中心的教学
(content-based
teaching),
这种教学以教授某专业的内
容为主
,
把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段
,
学生要想学好专业课
,
必须使自己的英语在听、
说、
读、
写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功
;
第二种是以主题为中
心的教学
(theme-based
teaching),<
/p>
这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。
例如英语精读课
就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学
,
目前在我国这种方法已被普遍
采用
,
但由于教师的准备不够
,
更
重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要
,
所以没
p>
能达到这种方法的最佳效果
;
第三种是以任
务为中心的教学
(task-based
teaching)
,
这种方法更
注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现
,
在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主
,<
/p>
如面试、
采访、公告、菜单等
,
要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务
,
这样
就突出了语言的功能性特点。对于高级英语学习者来说
,
提供真实的语境是当务之急
,
< br>学习者
可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、
英语电视节目以
及用英语写影评、
日记等方式来弥补缺少
真实语境的不足
,
另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联
网最
大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。
Chapter 3
Interlanguage
3.1
Behaviorist Learning Theory
Language
learning theory is like any other kind of learning
in that it involves habit formation.
But it is not adequate to adequately
account for L2 acquisition, since learners
frequently do not
produce output that
simply reproduce input.
Habit--stimulus-- response connection
3.2 A mentalist theory in language
learning
?
Main ideas of this theory
?
1. Only human beings are capable of
learning language.
?
2.
The
human
mind
is
equipped
with
a
faculty
for
learning
language→
Language
Acquisition
Device(
语言习得机制)
.
?
3. This faculty is the primary
determinant of LA.
?
4.
Input
is
needed,
but
only
to
'trigger'
the
operation
of
the
language
acquisition
device.
3.3 What
is
“
interlanguage
”
?
It refers to the
systematic knowledge of an L2 that is independent
of both the target and
the learner's
L1. .
A learner's
interlanguage is a unique linguistic system.
The premises of
interlanguage
1.
Interlanguage is viewed as a 'mental
grammar'.
(心理语法)
2. The learmer's grammar is
permeable.
(渗透性)
3. The learner's grammar is
transitional.
(迁移)
4. The systems learners construct
contain variable rules.
多变
5. Learners employ various learning
strategies to develop their interlanguage.
< br>(
学习策略)
6. The
learner's grammar is likely to
fossilize.
(石化)
1. Mental Grammar
The
learner
constructs
a
system
of
abstract
linguistic
rules
which
underlies
comprehension
and
production
of
the
L2.
This
system
of
rules
is
viewed
as
a
'mental
grammar' and is referred to as an
'interlanguage'.
2. Permeable
The
grammar
is
open
to
influence
from
the
outside
(i.e.
through
the
input).
It
is
also
influenced from the
inside. (on, overgeneralisation) computational
model of L2
acquisition
3.
Transitional
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
Learners change
their grammar from one time to another by adding
rules, deleting rules,
and
reconstructing the whole system.
?
This results in
an interlanguage
continuum(
连续体
)
eg.
Paint
→paint, painting → paint, painting,
painted
4. Variable
?
Some researchers have claimed that the
systems learners construct contain variable rules.
That is, the learners are likely to
have competing rules at any one stage of
development.
?
Other
researchers
argue
that
interlanguage
systems
are
homogenerous
and
that
variability reflects
the mistakes learners make when they try to use
their knowledge to
communicate.
?
ng strategies
Learners
employ
various
learning
strategies
to
develop
their
interlanguages.
The
different kinds of errors learners
produce reflect different learninf strategies.
6. Fossilization
Selinker
suggested
that
only
about
5%
of
learners
go
on
to
develop
the
same
mental
grammar as native
speakers.
3.4 Computational model of L2
acquisition
?
p>
input→
intake
→
L2 knowledge
→output
↓
'Black box' of the learner's
mind=interlanguage constructed
Other ways to elaborate this basic
model
'Social context' added
to explain how the nature of the input varies from
one setting to another
'L2
knowledge'
broken
up
into
two
or
more
components
to
reflect
the
different
kinds
of
knowledge learners
constructs.
e.g. explicit knowledge
about language & implicit knowledge of
language(P35)
An arrow can be drawn
from 'output' to 'input'.
Chapter 4 Social aspects of
interlanguage
4.1
Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum
(
风格连续体
)
Stylistic
continuum:
l style
谨慎体
b. vernacular
style
通俗体
Problems: a. Learners are not always
most accurate in their careful style and least
careful in their
vernacular style.
b. the role of
social factors remains unclear.
Accommodation theory:
How social groups influence the courses
of L2 acquisition.
(Convergence, divergence)
4.2 The acquisition model of L2
acquisition(
儒化模式
)
Social distance, psychological
distance, pidginization
4.3 Social
identity and investment in L2 learning
Cultural capital is needed to invest in
language learning.
Chapter
5 Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage
5.1Acquiring discourse rules
?
Discourse rules refer to the rules or
regularities in the ways in which native speakers
hold
conversations.
5.2The role of input and interaction in
L2 acquisition
1.
Stephen Krashen’s inpu
t
hypothesis
?
L2
acquisition takes place when a learner understands
input that contains grammatical
forms
that are at ‘i+1’ (are a little more advanced than
the current state of the learner’s
interlanguage) .
?
L2
acquisition depends on comprehensible
input.
(可理解的语言输入
)
?
Current state:
i
next advancing state: i+1
2.
Michael
Long’s interaction
hypothesis
(互动假说)
?
Michael
Long’s
interaction
hypothesis
also
emphasizes
the
importance
of
comprehensible input but claims that it
is most effective when it is modified through the
negotiation of
meaning
(意义协商)
3.
Evelyn Hatch: Scaffolding
?
Evelyn
Hatch
emphasizes
the
collaborative
endeavors
of
the
learners
and
their
interlocutors
in
constructing
discourse
and
suggests
that
syntactic
structures
can
grow
out of
the process of building the discourse
4.
Scaffolding
(支架学习法)
Learners use the discourse
to help them produce utterances that they would
not
be able to produce on their own.
Mark:
Come here.
Homer:
No come here.
5.3The role of output in L2 acquisition
?
Krashen:
Speaking
is
the
result
of
acquisition
not
its
cause.
The
only
way
learners
can
learn from their output
is by treating it as auto-input.
?
Merrill Swain:
Comprehensible output also plays a part in L2
acquisition.
?
1)
To serve a consciousness-raising function by
helping learners to notice gaps in their
interlanguages.
?
2) To test hypotheses.
?
3) To identify
problems with it and discussing ways in which they
can be put right.
Chapter 6
Psycholinguistic aspects of
interlanguage
6.1 L1Transfer
Negative transfer
Positive
transfer
Avoidance
Contrastive analysis
Speech
acts
Interlangage development cannot
follow a restructuring continuum
6.2The
role of consciousness in L2 acquisition
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