英语语言学知识点整理

.

★

Haliday

—

child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.

★

what are major

branches of linguistics

? what does each study?

Phonetics

----the study of the phonic medium of language, it

’

s concerned with all

the sounds that occur in the world

’

s languages.

Phonology

---the

study

of

sounds

systems

—

the

inventory

of

distinctive

sounds

that

occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.

Mor phology

---It

’

s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of

words and the rules by which words are formed.

Syntax

-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure

of a language.

Semantics-

--It

’

s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.

Pragmatics

---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers

of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.

Sociol inguistics

—

the study of language with reference to society.

Psycholinguistics

---the

study

of

language

with

reference

to

the

working

of

the

mind.

Applied linguistics

---the application of linguistic principles and theories to

language teaching and learning.

Chapter2 Phonology

★

three

branches

of

phonetics:

①

Articulatory

—

describes

the

way

our

speech

organs

work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.

②

Auditory

-

–

studies the

physical

properties

of

speech

sounds,

reaches

the

important

conclusion

that

phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.

③

Acoustic

-

–

studies the physical

properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.

★

Organs of Speech

:

Pharyngeal cavity

–

咽腔

Oral cavity

–

口腔

greatest source

of modification of air stream found here

Nasal cavity

–

鼻腔

★

Broad

transcription:

The

transcription

of

speech

sounds

with

letter

symbols

only.

(leaf /l/)

★

Narrow

transcription:

The

transcription

of

speech

sound

with

letters

symbols

and

the diacritics.(dark /l/~)

★

Phonetics

and

Phonology

区别

:

are

concerned

with

the

same

aspect

of

language-

the

speech sounds.

①

Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all

human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc.

②

Phonology:

it

aims

to

discover

how

speech

sounds

in

a

language

form

patterns

and

how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

★

rules in Phonology:

①

Sequential rules

: Rules that govern the combination of

sounds in a particular language.

②

Assimilation rules

: The assimilation rule

assimilates one sound to another by

’

copying

’

a feature of a sequential phoneme,

thus making the two phones similar.

③

Deletion

rule

:

It

’

s

a

phonological

rule

which

tells

us

when

a

sound

is

to

be

deleted

although its orthographically represented.

★

< br>Suprasegmental

超切分特征

: The phonemic features that occur above the level of

the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features

include

stress

,intonation

and

tone.

(intonation:

when

pitch,

stress

and

sound

lenth

are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch

.

.

variations,

which

are

caused

by

the

differing

rates

of

vibration

of

the

vocal

cords.

Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)

Chapter3 Morphology

★

open

class

words:

new

words

can

be

added

to

these

classes

regularly.

Such

as

nouns,

verbs,

adjectives

and

adverbs.

Such

as

Beatnik.

Closed

class

words:

conjunctions,

prepositions,

articles

and

pronouns

consist

of

the

grammatical

or

functional

words.

The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.

Chapter4 Syntax

★

determine

a

word

’

s

category:

①

meaning.

Word

categories

often

bear

some

relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be

elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by

nouns

can

be

elaborated

by

adjectives.(pretty

lady,

attribute

the

property

“

pretty< /p>

”

to

the

lady.)

②

inflection.

Words

of

different

categories

take

different

inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as

work

and

help

take

past

tense

affix

-ed

and

progressive

affix

-ing.

③

distribution.

That is what type of elements can co- occur with a certain word. For example, the

girl

and

a

card

④小结

A

word's

distributional

facts

together

with

information

about

its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.

★

phrase< /p>

包括

:

head,

specifier,

complement

.

①

The

word

round

which

phrase

is

formed

is termed head.

②

The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as

specifiers.

Specifiers

have

both

special

semantic

and

syntactic

roles:

Semantically,

they

help

make

more

precise

the

meaning

of

the

head.

Syntactically,

they

typically

make

a

phrase

boundary.

③

The

words

on

the

right

side

of

the

heads

are

complements.

Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and

locations

whose

existence

is

implied

by

the

meaning

of

the

head.

They

are

attached

to the right of the head in English.

★

phrase structure rule:

The

special

type

of

grammatical

mechanism

that

regulates

the

arrangement

of

elements

that

make

up

a

phrase

is

called

a

phrase

structure

rule.

★

XP rule:

In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left

of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can

be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.

(XP----->

(specifier) X (complement))

★

coordination rule:

Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements

of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon

is

known

as

coordination.

Such

structure

are

called

coordination

structure.

(

Four

important

properties

:

①

There is

no

limit

on

the

number

of

coordinated

categories

that can appear prior to the conjunction.

②

A category at any level (a head or an

entire XP) can be coordinated.

③

Coordinated categories must be of the same type.

④

The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of

the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)

★

deep

structure

and

surface

structure:

There

are

two

levels

of

syntactic

structure.

The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization

properties,

is

called

deep

structure

(or

D-structure).

//The

second,

corresponding

to

the

final

syntactic

form

of

the

sentence

which

results

from

appropriate

.

.

transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).

Chapter 5 Semantics

★

The

naming

theory:

(Greek

scholar

Plato)

According

to

this

theory,

the

linguistic

forms

or

symbols,

in

other

words,

the

words

used

in

a

language

are

taken

to

be

labels

of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.

★

The

conceptualist

view:

It

holds

that

there

is

no

direct

link

between

a

linguistic

form

and

what

it

refers

to;

rather

,in

the

interpretation

of

meaning

they

are

linked

through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

★

Contextualism:

(J.R.

Firth)

people

should

be

studied

in

terms

of

situation,

use,

context

—

elements closely linked with language behaviour.

It

’

s based on the

presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable

contexts. two kinds of context:

the situational

and

the linguistic context.

{A)

the

situational

context:

Every

utterance

occurs

in

a

particular

situation,

the

main

components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are

performing,

the

various

objects

and

events

existent

in

the

situation.-----The

seal

could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the

probability

of

a

word

’

s

co-occurrence

or

collocation

with

another

word,

which

forms

part of the

“

meaning

”< /p>

of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes

and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}

★

Sense

refers

to

the

inherent

meaning

of

a

linguistic

form,

which

is

the

collection

of all the features of the linguistic form, it

’

s abstract and de- contextualized.

//

Reference

is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it

is

a

matter

of

relationship

between

the

form

and

reality.

//

关系

:

①

Linguistic

forms,

having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations.

②

Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense. -----morning star=

evening

star.

③

Linguistic

forms

may

have

sense,

but

have

no

reference

in

the

real

world. ------dragon, ghost.

★

Hyponymy:

It

refers

to

the

sense

relation

between

a

more

general,

more

inclusive

word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called

superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.

★

X entails Y:

entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth

of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails

the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)

★

componential analysis:

an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of

meaning

components

or

semantic

features.

For

example,

boy

may

be

shown

as

[+human]

[+male]

[-adult].

semantic

features:

The

smallest

units

of

meaning

in

a

word,

which

may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has

the

semantic

features

[+human]

[-male]

[+adult]. //Advantages:

by

specifying

the

semantic

features

of

certain

word,

it

will

be

possible

to

show

how

these

words

are

related in meaning.

★

Predication Analysis:

①

The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the

meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be

worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog

bit the man. & The man bit the dog.

.