-
文献信息：
文
献
标
题
：
Effec
tiveness
of
brand
placement:
New
insights
about
vi
ewers
（软广告的效果：观众的新见解）
国外作者：
Jean-Marc
Lehu
，
Etienne Bressoud
文献出处：
《
Journal of
Business Research
》
, 2008,
61(10):1083-1090
字数统计：
英文
3592
单词，
190
84
字符；中文
5823
汉字
外文文献：
Effectiveness of brand placement: New
insights about
viewers
Abstract
Since
traditional
media
have
become
saturated,
the
technique
of
product
placement
has
been
attracting
growing
interest.
This
research
explores
new
insights concerning
viewers' reactions during a second viewing of a
movie. A sample
of 3532 French viewers
of DVDs has been used to link the way the movie
was chosen,
viewed and appreciated (or
not) with a spontaneous brand placement recall,
the day
after
the
film
was
watched
at
home.
Results
make
a
contribution
to
strengthening
professionals'
interest in the technique, and to adding to
academic knowledge of the
topic. A
first viewing of the movie at the cinema improves
brand placement recall, as
does
watching
the
movie
at
home
on
a
large
home
cinema
screen.
Such
an
improvement also occurs when a DVD
movie is chosen either because of the movie
director or when the viewer likes the
movie.
Keywords
Consumer;
Product
placement;
Brand
placement;
Movie;
Film;
Branded-entertainment;
Spontaneous day-after recall
1. Introduction
Product
placements (a product and/or a brand intentionally
placed in a cultural
medium)
are
mushrooming
in
movies
nowadays.
Those
products
are
part
of
a
so-called
product
placement
deal.
Product
placement
in
movies
has
become
a
communication technique
which is used more than ever by advertisers (Karrh
et al.,
2003; PQ Media, 2007). A recent
Association of National Advertisers (ANA) survey
indicates
that
63%
of
the
American
advertisers
who
responded
already
integrated
product placement actions in their
communication plan, 52% specifying that financing
for
those
actions
had
been
transferred
from
their
TV
advertising
budget
(Consoli,
2005). A great
deal of research is already devoted to product
placement in all its forms
(Nelson,
2002;
La
Ferle
and
Edwards,
2006;
Gupta
and
Gould,
2007)
and
more
specifically to product
placement in movies (Karrh, 1998).
2. Brand placement in movies
Since the first brand placements
appeared in novels two centuries ago, they have
developed with the movie industry
(Turner, 2004; Newell and Salmon, 2004). Product
placement
is
a
crossbreed
technique,
that
combines
different
communication
techniques
into
one,
taking
place
in
a
cultural
and/or
entertainment
environment.
Placing
a
product
consists
of
putting
a
product
and/or
a
brand
into
a
movie
scene
where it can be seen
and/or its name heard. The placement can either be
paid for by
the advertiser or be part
of a barter deal concerning products and/or
services such as
logistics
facilities
(Karrh,
1998).
Mainly
since
the
end
of
the
1980s,
several
papers
contribute to a better understanding of
this communication technique which is dubbed
hybrid
by
Balasubramanian
(1994)
since
brand
placement
puts
an
ad
message
in
entertainment medium. Its positive
effect on attitude (Fontaine, 2005; Redondo, 2006)
and especially its potential impact on
brand recall (Brennan et al., 1999; d'Astous and
Chartier,
2000)
represent the main core of the research knowledge.
2.1. The reasons for
product placement growth
Confronted with the fragmentation of
media and their audiences on the one hand
(Deloitte, 2005) and with the rise of
electronic video devices allowing viewers to skip
commercials
(O'Neill
and
Barrett,
2004)
on
the
other,
advertisers
are
increasingly
seeking
to
re-
establish
the
link
between
products
and
their
consumers.
As
brand
placement in movies
seems to be well accepted (O'Reilly et al., 2005),
sometimes less
expensive
than
a
30-second
TV
spot
and
also
more
effective
(Jaffe,
2005),
this
communication
technique
is
becoming
more
frequently
used.
Ways
of
placing
the
brand may differ, but
the main purpose of obtaining brand recall and
improving brand
image remains (Lehu,
2007). That is why Chief Inspector Clouseau drove
a Smart car
in The Pink Panther.
Movies are not the only
medium used for brand or product placement. Some
can
be
found
in
television
series
or
shows,
theatre
plays,
songs,
videogames,
novels…
(Kretchmer,
2004;
Moser
et
al.,
2004).
The
primary
reason
remains
the
same:
generating
complementary
income
for
the
author,
the
medium
or
the
production
on
the
one hand, while offering an opportunity of branded
entertainment to the advertiser
(Russell
and
Belch,
2005).
Car
makers
were
among
the
first
to
use
the
technique
because
of
the
potentially
very
large
audience
for
a
low
cost
(Parrish,
1976).
Moreover the same
movie can now be seen in theatres, on DVD,
cable/satellite TV
,
syndication
and
reruns.
Besides,
building
a
fake
car
would
be
too
costly
for
a
production
and
somehow
could
appear
too
obvious
to
the
audience
(Moseret
al.,
2004).
2.2. Modalities and effectiveness of a
product placement
Research into product
placement usually focuses on effectiveness or
spectators'
acceptance of this hybrid
technique. Nevertheless, most research in this
field explains
and gauges effectiveness
by the way the placement is made, meaning that
most of the
results
show
how
the
characteristics
of
the
brand
placement
affect
its
effectiveness
(effects from the placement).
Balasubramanian et al. (2006) identify several
measures
of
effectiveness:
brand
typicality/incidence,
placement
recognition,
brand
salience,
placement
recall,
brand
portrayal
rating,
identification
with
brand/imitation,
brand
attitude, purchase
intention, brand choice, and brand usage behavior.
Three placement
modalities
are
usually
distinguished:
prominence,
audiovisual
and
plot
insertion.
Prominent placements occur when the
product is made highly visible by the virtue of
the size and/or position on the screen
or its centrality to the action in the scene
(Gupta
and Lord, 1998). The audiovisual
characteristic refers to the appearance of the
brand
on
the
screen
and/or
to
the
brand
being
mentioned
in
a
dialogue
(Russell,
2002).
Finally,
plot
insertion
refers
to
the
degree
to
which
the
brand
is
integrated
into
the
story
itself
(Russell,
1998).
Such
research
contributes
to
a
better
understanding
of
product placement
effectiveness (V
ollmers and Mizerski,
1994; Russell, 2002; Karrh
et al.,
2003; Bressoud and Lehu, 2007b), and more
specifically brand communication
effectiveness.
Several researchers have worked on
placement effectiveness, and still do, either
in movie theatres (Ong and Meri, 1994)
or in TV program, including series (Stern and
Russell, 2004). However, even if they
recognized that a movie placement has a first
life
in
theatres
and
a
second
life
in
the
home
(V
ollmers
and
Mizerski
1994),
little
research
has
focused
on
this
topic
(Bré
e,
1996).
Research
into
product
placement
concentrates on
placement conditions which can be partly
controlled by the advertiser.
2.3.
Research objective
Because
the
link
between
a
spectator's
conditions
of
exposure
and
brand
placement
effectiveness
cannot
be
controlled,
less
research
focuses
on
this
relationship.
But
a
spectator's
attitude
influences
such
effectiveness
(Johnstone
and
Dodd, 2000; Fontaine, 2002), and the
advertiser could have chosen the movie on the
basis of the attitude the story was
supposed to generate. This primary analysis leads
us
to one goal: exploring the influence
of the spectator's attitude on the effectiveness
of a
second
life
brand
placement
in
a
film
on
DVD
watched
in
the
home.
This
goal
is
achieved
by
explaining
the
effectiveness
of
the
brand
placement
in
terms
of
the
spectator's
attitude
while
watching
the
movie
during
this
second
viewing;
the
effectiveness is analyzed using an
experiment with DVD viewers.
3. Hypotheses
The extent of
spontaneous day-after recall (SDAR) in terms of
number of brand
placements seen on
screen and remembered is used in this research as
the measure of
brand placement
effectiveness. In determining this, the role of
the consumer becomes
pregnant,
discussing
how
many
brands
a
consumer
should
remember,
given
the
conditions
pertaining
when
he
or
she
was
exposed
to
the
movie.
The
advertiser's
objective is
obviously to make sure that the consumer recalls
the specific brand and
that he or she
does so regardless of the modalities of the brand
placement.
Four
hypotheses
have
been
formulated
to
link
brand
placement
and
the
consumer
who
has
been
exposed
to
this
communication
technique.
The
first
two
hypotheses focus on this aspect, before
and during the exposure to the movie. The last
two hypotheses concentrate on the
spectator's attitude towards the movie before and
after viewing the movie in which brands
are placed.
3.1. Second life of the
placement
Among the
respondents, some may have seen the movie
previously, in cinemas.
（
Johnstone and Dodd 2000)
First test the hypothesis that SDAR might be
higher if
viewers were watching the
movie for the second time. Unfortunately, they
conclude
that
prior
exposure
has
too
little
impact
upon
brand
salience
level
to
support
this
hypothesis. Their hypothesis is tested
on a sample of 53 viewers. The present research
employs a sample of 3532 viewers. A
brand placement has several lives
(Bré
e, 1996)
which interact
through the many viewings of the movie.
Consequently:
Hypothesis
1a.
The
extent
of
brand
placement
SDAR
on
DVD
viewing
is
favorably influenced by a first viewing
of the movie at the cinema.
Consistent with
this first
hypothesis
that links TV and theater,
and the
wish to
focus on the
TV second viewing, the difference of size of a TV
screen, smaller than
that of a theatre
screen, must be considered. Two of the three
modalities of product
placement,
plot
integration
and
audiovisual
remain
the
same
whether
the
movie
is
shown
on
a
theatre
screen
or
on
a
TV
screen.
However,
the
third
modality,
prominence, may be drastically changed,
given the difference in absolute screen size.
Depending
on
the
size
of
the
screen,
the
product
placement
may
appear
less
prominent
on
TV
than
on
a
cinema
screen.
Of
course,
the
relative
size
of
the
placement in the movie
scene always remains proportionally the same. In a
cinema all
the spectators are seeing
the movie on a large screen, but this is not the
case when it is
viewed at home.
However, pre-tests informed us that a certain
number of viewers use
video widescreen
projection instead of a traditional TV set. This
is not a problem if
the size of the
placement has no impact on its recall.
Nevertheless, several researchers
insist
on
the
role
of
placement
prominence
(Gupta
and
Lord,
1998;
Brennan
et
al.,
1999;
d'Astous
and
Chartier,
2000).
They
demonstrate
that
the
more
prominent
the
placement, the greater the impact. Thus
the size of the placement in relation to the size
of the screen
–
which is part of the placement prominence
definition
–
influences the
placement recall. This led us to
question whether the absolute size of the
placement
could
play
the
same
role:
that
is,
whether
the
larger
the
screen
on
which
the
respondents have been
watching the movie, and thus the bigger the brand
placement's
appearance,
would,
via
this
prominence,
result
in
better
recognition
and
recall.
Consequently:
Hypothesis
1b.
Watching
the
movie
at
home,
on
a
large
home
cinema
screen,
improves the extent
of brand placement SDAR.
3.2. Spectator's attitude towards the
movie
The
two
following
hypotheses
concern
the
choice
of
the
movie
and
its
appreciation.
Some
movie
viewers
choose
their
movie
(in
movie
theatres
or
on
DVD)
because
of the film's director (Ainslie et al., 2003).
Those movie fans may be more
interested
than the average in the direction, the set and/or
the acting, their supposedly
higher
attention could
lead to
a
greater degree of SDAR for brand placements. The
purpose
of
this
hypothesis
is
not
to
analyze
the
impact
of
the
director's
contingent
fame on the SDAR. All the selected
movies could be considered as successful in their
domestic market, but the fame of the
director was obviously very different from one
film to another. So the goal is just to
identify the possible impact of the movie
director,
whoever he or she was. Based
on a direct effect due to vigilance:
Hypothesis
2a.
Choosing
a
DVD
movie
because
of
the
director
improves
the
extent of brand placement SDAR.
Fontaine
(2002)
shows
that
appreciation
of
a
movie
has
a
positive
impact
on
attitude change. This
result is still accurate for recall and then, for
a viewer who has
enjoyed the movie,
details might be better perceived and then be
better recalled. This
hypothesis
is
also
inspired
by
Johnstone
and
Dodd's
work
(2000)
stressing
the
fact
that
placements could increase brand salience, and
particularly so if the audience liked
the movie. Consequently:
Hypothesis 2b. The more the
DVD viewers appreciate the movie, the more they
spontaneously recall placed brands.
4. Research
design
This section presents the
original method adopted of collecting data
following a
second
stage
viewing
of
a
movie
and
the
methodology
used
to
test
the
four
hypotheses.
4.1. Data collection
The purpose of this research is to
innovate by using a large, convenient sample
of video viewers questioned the day
after watching a movie on DVD, when leaving
one of the three French video rental
shops
chosen for the study. The
intention is to
collect answers from
single respondents only. This means that the DVD
viewers are
each interviewed about one
film only. The final sample includes 3532 video
viewers
questioned
about
one
of
the
following
11
American
movies:
Men
in
Black
II,
Minority
Report,
Analyze
That,
Banger
Sisters,
Fashion
Victim,
Austin
Powers
in
Goldmember, Johnny English, Intolerable
Cruelty, Mr. Deed, Hardball and Paycheck.
These movies were selected for the
research because they were newly released DVDs
(meaning
heavy
rentals
during
the
data
collection
process),
because
they
were
successful
and
essentially
because
the
placements
were
easily
and
clearly
recognizable.
This
research
covers
a
period
from
2003
to
2005
partly
because
the
decision to choose real motion pictures
meant that they had to be selected carefully to
ensure their maximal usefulness. All
the brand placements identified and used in the
research were strictly isolated,
meaning that the link between an SDAR and a
specific
placement is exclusive,
because each brand placement occurs just once in
the movie
considered. The movies have
not been modified in order to control brand
placements.
This
point
was
crucial
to
ensure
that,
during
the
interview
with
the
respondent,
questions were referring to the same
brand placement. Furthermore, American movies
represented
55%
of
the
2003
French
DVD
market
by
volume,
and
69%
by
value
(CNC, 2005).
4.2. Measurements
The
SDAR
of
each
placement
was
added
to
calculate
the
extent
of
SDAR
per
movie for one
respondent
，
that is the
dependent variable. The previous watching of
the movie in a cinema was measured by a
dichotomous question. Respondents were
asked whether they watched the movie on
a TV or on a large home cinema screen.
They
were
also
questioned
about
the
reasons
for
their
DVD
choice,
which
were
considered as ―director: yes or no‖.
Finally, appreciation of
the movie was
evaluated
on
a
0
to
20
scale
(0
meaning
a
total
dislike
and
20
an
absolute
liking).
The
data
collection
process
took
place
from
January
2003
to
February
2005
focusing
on
the
selected just released DVDs. The
questionnaire was systematically submitted to
every
person renting one of the DVDs
employed in
the research. Every
respondent
freely
chose the
movie he or she wanted to watch. Owing to the
small size of the video clubs,
their
proximity and the appeal of the research subject,
only six individuals refused to
answer
the questionnaire.
4.3.
Methodology
Since the four hypotheses
are not independent,
all of them have
been tested in
the same model rather
than individually. Hypotheses are validated using
an ANCOV
A,
which allows us
to study the simultaneous impact of each
independent variable on the
dependent
variable.
Independent
variables
are
mentioned
in
each
of
the
four
hypotheses presented above. The
dependent variable is the number of brands
recalled
by
the
respondent
(SDAR)
in
one
movie.
A
hypothesis
is
validated
when
the
relationship
between
the
studied
variable
and
the
dependent
variable
is
significant,
that is p-value
is less than 5%, and produces the expected mean of
the value. Because
the number of
placements varies from one movie to another
(indeed from 4 to 22 in
the movies
considered), the total number of brand placements
in the movie has been
included in the
model as a control variable.
5. Results and discussion
Of the respondents
questioned, 34% noticed and, the following day,
recalled at
least one brand placement
in the movie they watched. The size of the sample,
3532
DVD
viewers,
appears
sufficiently
large
compared
with
the
number
of
respondents
surveyed in
the reviewed
research in
this field, from
62 (Sabherwal
et
al.,
1994) to
378
(Fontaine,
2002),
to
allow
us
to
diversify
spectators,
movies
and
placement
modalities.
This
seemed
necessary
partly
to
compensate
for
the
constraints
arising
from the fact that,
when using real movies rather than films created
especially for the
research
or
simply
excerpts,
researchers
do
not
have
full
control
of
the
placement
modalities.
First of all, according to the
ANCOV
A results, the control variable
–
that is the
total
number
of
brand
placements
in
the
movie
–
does
not
explain
the
degree
of
SDAR
(probability
associated
is
0.88),
which
means
that
a
profusion
of
brand
placements does not
automatically increase the number of brands
recalled.
5.1. Extended
time potential for product placement
Because of the specific characteristics
of DVD viewers, this research took place
during a potential second exposure to
product placements. Validating Hypothesis 1a
(―Shown_Cinema—
Yes‖ parameterN0; pb0.01) means that
the respondents who have
previously
seen the movie in a cinema show more SDAR than
respondents who have
seen the movie for
the first time on DVD. On the one hand, this
analysis shows that
product recall is
stronger among viewers watching the movie on DVD a
few months
after viewing this same
movie in cinemas. On the other hand, because some
15% of
the respondents (representing
522 viewers) rented a DVD even after having seen
the
film
in
cinemas
the
previous
year,
this
result
supports
the
product
placement
professionals' view as well as the
academic research which argues that the potential
total audience could be far bigger than
the one calculated from cinema tickets alone
(Bré
e,
1996).
Of the
sample 17% saw the movie on a large screen (home
cinema). Since the
extent of SDAR was
significantly greater among these 587 respondents,
Hypothesis
1b is
validat
ed
(―Projection—HomeCine‖ parameterN0;
pb0.01).
Indeed, the large
dimensions of the screen allow the
brand placement to appear significantly greater in
size, that is
more
prominent,
and hence to be more
effective (Brennan
et
al.,
1999;
Astous
and Chartier, 2000). Considering only the size of
the placement, independent