-pro是什么意思中文
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Last time,
we argued about <
/p>
上次
,
我们谈到
the case of
The
Queen v. Dudley & Stephens,
女王诉
< br>Dudley
和
Stephens
案件
,
the
lifeboat case,
the case of cannibalism
at sea.
那个救生艇上
,
海上
吃人的案件
.
And with
the arguments
about the lifeboat in
mind,
带着针对这个案件所展开的一些讨论
the arguments for and
against
what Dudley and Stephens did in
mind,
带着支持和反对
Dudley
和
Stephens
所做的吃人行为的讨论
,
let's turn back to
the philosophy,
the utilitarian
philosophy of Jeremy Bentham.
让我们回头来看看<
/p>
Bentham
的功利主义哲学
.
Bentham was born in England
in 1748.
At the age of 12, he went to
Oxford.
Bentham
于
1
748
年出生于英国
.12
岁那年
,
他去了牛津大学
.
At 15, he went to law
school.
He was admitted to the Bar at
age 19
15
岁时
,
他去了法学院
.19
岁就取得了律师资格
but he never
practiced law.
但他没有从事于律师行业
.
Instead, he devoted his
life to
jurisprudence and moral
philosophy.
相反
,<
/p>
他毕生致力于法理学和道德哲学
.
Last time, we began to consider
Bentham's version of utilitarianism.
上一次
,
我们开始考虑
Bentham
版本的功利主义
.
The main idea is simply
stated
and it's this:
简单来说其主要思想就是：
The highest principle of morality,
whether personal or political morality,
道德的最高原则
,
无论个人或政治道德
,
is to maximize
the general welfare,
or the collective
happiness,
就是将公共福利
,
或集体的幸福最大化
,
or
the overall balance
of pleasure over
pain;
或在快乐与痛苦的平衡中倾向快乐
;
in a phrase, maximize
utility.
简而言之就是
,
功
利最大化
.
Bentham
arrives at this principle
by the
following line of reasoning:
Bentham
是由如下推理来得出这个原则的：
We're all governed
by pain
and pleasure,
我们都被痛苦和快乐所控制
,
they are our sovereign
masters,
and so any moral system
他们是我们的主宰
,
所以任何道德体系
has to take account
of them.
都要考虑到这点
.
How best to take account?
By maximizing.
如何能最好地考虑这一点
?
通过最大化
.
And this leads to the
principle of the
greatest good for the
greatest number
.
从此引出的的原则就是将最大利益给最多数的人的
.
What exactly should we
maximize?
我们究竟该如何最大化
?
Bentham tells us happiness,
or more precisely, utility -
Bentham
告诉我们幸福
,
或者
更准确地说
,
实用
-
maximizing utility as a
principle
not only for individuals
最大化效用作为一个原则
不仅适用于个人
but also for communities
and
for legislators.
而且还适用于社区及立法者
.
Bentham asks.
“毕竟
,
什么是社区
?
”
Bentham
问道
.
It's the sum of the
individuals
who comprise it.
它是构成这个社区的所有个体的总和
.
And that's why in deciding
the best policy,
这就是为什么在决定最好的政策
,
in deciding what the law should be,
in deciding what's just,
在决定
法律应该是什么样
,
在决定什么是公正时
,
citizens and legislators
should ask themselves the question
公民和立法者应该问自己的问题
if we add up all of the benefits
of this policy
如果我们把这项政策所能得到的所有利益
and subtract all of the
costs,
the right thing to
do
减去所有的成本
,
正确的做法<
/p>
is the one that
maximizes the balance
of happiness over
suffering.
就是将幸福与痛苦之间的平衡最大化地倾向幸福
.
That's what it means
to maximize utility.
这就是效用最大化
.
Now, today, I want to see
whether you agree or disagree with it,
现在
,
我想看看你们是否同意它
,
and it often
goes,
this utilitarian logic,
往往有云：功利主义的逻辑
,
under the name of
cost-
benefit analysis,
名为成本效益分析
,
which is used by companies
and by governments all the time.
也是被公司以及各国政府所常常使用的
.
And what it involves
is placing a value,
它的内涵是用一个价值
usually a dollar value,
to
stand for utility on the costs
通常是由美元
,
来代表不同提案的效用
and the benefits
of various proposals.
这效用是基于成本和效益得出的
Recently, in the Czech Republic,
there was a proposal
最近
,
在捷克共和国
,
有一个
提案
to increase
the excise tax on smoking.
Philip Morris, the tobacco company,
对吸烟增加货物税
.Philip
Morris
烟草公司
,
does huge business
in the
Czech Republic.
该公司在捷克共和国有着大笔生意
.
They commissioned a study,
a
cost-benefit analysis
他们委托了一个研究
,
of smoking in the Czech Republic,
and what their cost-benefit
关于吸烟在捷克共和国的成本效益分析
.
analysis found was the
government
gains by having Czech
citizens smoke.
他们的分析发现
,
捷克政府将会因公民吸烟而收益
.
Now, how do they gain?
现在
,
他们如何收益
?
It's true that there are
negative effects to the public finance
确实
,
捷克政府的公共财政体系
of the Czech
government
because there are increased
health care
会因为吸烟人群所引发的相关疾病而增加的医疗保健开支
,
costs for people who
develop
smoking-related diseases.
从而受到负面影响
.
On the other hand,
there
were positive effects
另一方面
,<
/p>
这也有积极效应
and those were added up
on
the other side of the ledger
.
并且这些积极效益累加到了账簿的另一面
The positive
effects included,
for the
most part,
积极效益包括
,
在大多数情况下
,
various tax revenues that the
government derives from the sale
政府通过卷烟产品而获得的各种税收收入
,
of cigarette products,
but it also included
但也包括
health care savings to the
government when people die early,
政府因为吸烟人群过早死亡而省下的医疗储蓄
,
例
如
pension
savings -- you don't have to
pay
pensions for as long -
养老金储蓄
-
不必支付退休金了
-
and also, savings in
housing
costs for the elderly.
还有
,
老年人住房费用
.
And when all of the costs
and benefits were added up,
当把所有的成本和效益都分别加起来
,
the Philip Morris study
found
that there is a net public
finance gain
Philip Morris
公司
的研究发现
,
捷克共和国会有一个
in the Czech Republic
of $$147,000,000,
$$147,000,00
0
的公共财政净增益
,
and given the savings in housing,
in health care, and pension costs,
并鉴于节省了住房费用
,
医疗保健费用
,
养老金费用
,
the government enjoys savings
of over $$1,200 for each person
who
dies prematurely due to smoking.
每个因吸烟而过早死亡的人都为政府节省了
$$1,200.
Cost-benefit analysis.
成本效益分析
.
Now, those among you
who are
defenders of utilitarianism
现在
,
你们中间
,
那些功利主义的捍卫
者
may think that
this is an unfair test.
可能认为这是一种不公平的测试
.
Philip Morris was pilloried
in the press
Philip
Morris
公司在新闻界遭到了嘲笑
and they issued
an apology
for this heartless
calculation.
他们也因为这个无情的计算而发表了道歉
.
You may say that what's
missing here
is something that the
utilitarian
你可能会说
,
功利主义在这里可以轻易弥补一个疏漏
can easily incorporate,
namely the value to the person
它没有正确评估人的价值
and to the families of those who die
from lung cancer
.
以及那些因为肺癌而死亡的人的家属的损失
.
What about the value of
life?
如何评估生命价值
?
Some cost-benefit analyses incorporate
a measure for the value of life.
一些成本效益分析的确纳入了对生命价值的评估
.
One of the most famous
of these involved the Ford Pinto case.
其中最有名的要数
Ford
Pinto
案件
.
Did any of you read about
that?
你们有没有阅读过这个案件
?
This was back in the 1970s.
那是发生在
20
世纪
< br>70
年代
.
Do you remember
what the
Ford Pinto was,
你还记得
Ford
Pinto
是
,
a kind of car?
Anybody?
什么样的车么
?
谁能记得
?
It was a small
car
,
subcompact
car
, very popular
,
那是一种小型车
,
超小型车
,
很受欢迎
,
but it had one problem,
which is the fuel tank
但它也有问
题
,
车后座的油箱
was at the back of the car
and in rear collisions,
少数情况
下
,
碰撞会导致
the fuel tank exploded
and some people were killed
油箱爆炸并且有些人会因此死去
and some severely injured.
还有人因此严重受伤
.
Victims of these injuries
took Ford to court to sue.
这些受害者将福特告到法院
.
And in the court case,
it
turned out that Ford
而在诉讼案件
,
人们发现福特原来
had long since known about the
vulnerable fuel tank
早已知道油箱的脆弱
and had done a cost-benefit
analysis
to determine whether it would
be
并且已做了成本效益分析
,
以确
定是否
worth it to
put in
a special shield that would
值得来放入一个特殊的盾牌
protect the fuel tank
and
prevent it from exploding.
用来保护油箱并防止它爆炸
.
They did a cost-benefit analysis.
他们做了成本效益分析
.
The cost per part
to
increase the safety of the Pinto,
增加
Ford
Pinto
安全的每部件费用
,
they calculated at $$11.00 per part.
他们算出
,
要每部件
$$ 11.00.
And here's -- this
was the cost-benefit
analysis that
emerged in the trial.
这里
-
这就是当时审判中出示的成本效益分析
.
Eleven dollars per part
at
12.5 million cars and trucks
每件
< br>11
美元
,
乘以
12.5
万辆轿车和卡车
came to a total cost of
$$137
million to improve the safety.
得到一个总成本<
/p>
,
需要
13700
万美元来改善安全性
.
But
then they calculated the benefits
of
spending all this money
不过
,<
/p>
他们随后计算了一下花这笔钱来改善安全性的收益率
on a safer car
and they counted 180 deaths
(
如果不花这笔钱来改善安全
,)
假设
会导致
180
人死亡
and they assigned a dollar
value,
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
-pro是什么意思中文
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