-nrm
1
TPO26:
Energy and the Industrial
Revolution
For
years
historians
have
sought
to
identify
crucial
elements
in
the
eighteenth-century
rise
in
industry,
technology,
and
economic
power
Known
as
the
Industrial
Revolution,
and
many
give
prominence to the problem of energy.
Until the eighteenth century, people relied on
energy derived
from plants as well as
animal and human muscle to provide power Increased
efficiency in the use
of
water
and
wind
helped
with
such
tasks
as
pumping,
milling,
or
sailing.
However,
by
the
eighteenth
century,
Great
Britain
in
particular
was
experiencing
an
energy
shortage.
Wood,
the
primary
source of heat for homes and industries and also
used in the iron industry as processed
charcoal, was diminishing in supply.
Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however,
there were
not yet efficient means by
which to produce mechanical energy or to power
machinery. This was
to occur with
progress in the development of the steam engine.
In the late 1700s James
Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable
steam engine that was
soon applied to a
1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper
to use. The engine helped solve
the
problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and
increased the production of coal needed to
power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary
engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts
to be
turned and machines to be driven,
resulting in mills using steam power to spin and
weave cotton.
Since the steam engine
was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to
be located by rivers, as
had
mills
that
used
water-
driven
machines.
The
shift
to
increased
mechanization
in
cotton
production is apparent in the import of
raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between
1760 and
1850, the amount of raw cotton
imported increased 230 times. Production of
British cotton goods
increased
sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain's
most important product, accounting
for
one-half of all exports. The success of the steam
engine resulted in increased demands for coal,
and the M consequent increase in coal
production was made possible as the steam-powered
pumps
drained water from the ever-
deeper coal seams found below the water table.
The availability of steam
power and the demands for new machines facilitated
the transformation
of
the
iron
industry.
Charcoal,
made
from
wood
and
thus
in
limited
supply,
was
replaced
with
coal-derived coke (substance left after
coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into
use for
producing of raw iron.
Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke,
producing a high-quality
refined
iron.
Reduced
cost
was
also
instrumental
in
developing
steam-powered
rolling
mills
capable
of
producing
finished
iron
of
various
shapes
and
sizes.
The
resulting
boom
in
the
iron
industry expanded the
annual iron output by more than 170 times between
1740 and 1840, and by
the 1850s Great
Britain was producing more tons of iron than the
rest of the world combined. The
developments in the iron industry were
in part a response to the demand for more machines
and
the ever-widening use of higher-
quality iron in other industries.
Steam power and iron combined to
revolutionize transport, which in turn had further
implications.
Improvements in road
construction and sailing had occurred, but
shipping heavy freight over land
remained expensive, even with the use
of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel
rails had
long
been
used
in
j
mining
operations
to
move
bigger
loads,
but
horses
were
still
the
primary
source of power.
However, the arrival of the steam engine initiated
a complete 2
transformation
in
rail
transportation,
entrenching
and
expanding
the
Industrial
Revolution.
As
transportation
improved,
distant
and
larger
markets
within
the
nation
could
be
reached,
thereby
encouraging
the
development
of
larger
factories
to
keep
pace
with
increasing
sales.
Greater
productivity
and
rising
demands
provided
entrepreneurs
with
profits
that
could
be
reinvested
to
take advantage of new technologies to
further expand capacity, or to seek alternative
investment
opportunities. Also, the
availability of jobs in railway Jj construction
attracted many rural laborers
accustomed to seasonal and temporary
employment. When the work was completed, many
moved
to other construction jobs or to
factory work in cities and towns, where they
became part of an
expanding working
class.
PARAGRAPH 1
For
years
historians
have
sought
to
identify
crucial
elements
in
the
eighteenth-century
rise
in
industry,
technology,
and
economic
power
Known
as
the
Industrial
Revolution,
and
many
give
prominence to the problem of energy.
Until the eighteenth century, people relied on
energy derived
from plants as well as
animal and human muscle to provide power Increased
efficiency in the use
of
water
and
wind
helped
with
such
tasks
as
pumping,
milling,
or
sailing.
However,
by
the
eighteenth
century,
Great
Britain
in
particular
was
experiencing
an
energy
shortage.
Wood,
the
primary
source of heat for homes and industries and also
used in the iron industry as processed
charcoal, was diminishing in supply.
Great Britain had large amounts of coal; however,
there were
not yet efficient means by
which to produce mechanical energy or to power
machinery. This was
to occur with
progress in the development of the steam engine.
1
、
Why
does the author provide the information that
A. To reject the claim that
Britain was facing an energy shortage in the
eighteenth century f
B. To
explain why coal rather than other energy
resources became the primary source of heat for
homes and industries in eighteenth-
century Britain
C. To
indicate that Britain's energy shortage was not
the result of a lack of fuel
D. To explain why coal mining became an
important industry in nineteenth-century
2
、
What was
the eighteenth century possible?
A. Water and wind could not
be used efficiently.
B.
There was no efficient way to power machinery.
C. Steam engines required
large amounts of coal, which was in short supply.
D. Neither humans nor
animals were strong enough to provide the power
required for industrial
application.
PARAGRAPH 2
In the late 1700s James
Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable
steam engine that was
soon applied to a
1 variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper
to use. The engine helped solve
the
problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and
increased the production of coal needed to
power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary
engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts
to be
turned and machines to be driven,
resulting in mills using steam power to spin and
weave cotton.
Since the steam engine
was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to
be located by rivers, as
had
mills
that
used
water-
driven
machines.
The
shift
to
increased
mechanization
in
cotton
production is apparent in the import of
raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between
1760 and
1850, the amount of raw cotton
imported increased 230 times. Production of
British cotton goods
increased
sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain's
most important product, accounting
for
one-half of all exports. The success of the steam
engine resulted in increased demands for coal,
and the M consequent increase in coal
production was made possible as the steam-powered
pumps
drained water from the ever-
deeper coal seams found below the water table.
3
、
Which of the
following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a
development in cotton mills
brought
about by Watt's steam engine?
A. The importing of huge quantities of
raw cotton by Britain
B.
Increased mechanization
C.
More possibilities for mill location
D. Smaller mills
4
、
The
phrase
A. clearly seen in
B. aid in
C. associated with
D. followed By
5
、
According to
paragraph 2, what was Britain's most important
export by 1850?
A. Raw
cotton
B. Cotton cloth
C. Steam-powered pumps
D. Coal
6
、
The
word
A. Resulting
B. Encouraging
C. well documented
D. immediate
7
、
What is the
role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole?
A.
It
explains
how
by
increasing
the
supply
of
raw
materials
from
other
countries,
British
industries were able
to reduce costs and increase production.
B.
It
explains
how
the
production
of
mechanical
energy
and
its
benefits
spread
quickly
across
countries that were
linked commercially with Great Britain.
C.
It
demonstrates
why
developments
in
a
single
industry
could
not
have
caused
the
Industrial
Revolution.
D. It illustrates why
historians have assigned igreat importance to the
issue of energy in the rise of
the
Industrial Revolution.
PARAGRAPH 3
The
availability of steam power and the demands for
new machines facilitated the transformation
of
the
iron
industry.
Charcoal,
made
from
wood
and
thus
in
limited
supply,
was
replaced
with
coal-derived coke (substance left after
coal is heated) as steam-driven bellows came into
use for
producing of raw iron.
Impurities were burnt away with the use of coke,
producing a high-quality
refined
iron.
Reduced
cost
was
also
instrumental
in
developing
steam-powered
rolling
mills
capable
of
producing
finished
iron
of
various
shapes
and
sizes.
The
resulting
boom
in
the
iron
industry expanded the
annual iron output by more than 170 times between
1740 and 1840, and by
the 1850s Great
Britain was producing more tons of iron than the
rest of the world combined. The
developments in the iron industry were
in part a response to the demand for more machines
and
the ever-widening use of higher-
quality iron in other industries.
8
、
According to
paragraph 3, why was the use of coke important for
the iron industry?
A. It
helped make wood into charcoal.
B. It reduced the dependency on steam-
powered machines used for the production of iron.
C. It replaced charcoal in
the production of raw and refined iron.
D. It powered the machines
used to extract coal in coal mines.
9
、
According to
paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the
iron industry in Great Britain
during
t|| 1800s EXCEPT:
A. Steam-
driven bellows were used to prHlice raw iron.
B. By the 1850s Britain was
the world's largest producer of iron.
C. Steam-powered mills made it possible
to produce iron of different shapes and sizes.
D. Greater demand for
higher-quality iron increased its price.
PARAGRAPH 4
Steam power and iron
combined to revolutionize transport, which in turn
had further implications.
Improvements
in road construction and sailing had occurred, but
shipping heavy freight over land
remained expensive, even with the use
of rivers and canals wherever possible. Parallel
rails had
long
been
used
in
j
mining
operations
to
move
bigger
loads,
but
horses
were
still
the
primary
source of power.
■
However, the
arrival of the steam engine initiated a complete
transformation
in rail transportation,
entrenching and expanding the Industrial
Revolution.
■
As
transportation
improved, distant and
larger markets within the nation could be reached,
thereby encouraging the
development of
larger factories to keep pace with increasing
sales.
■
Greater
productivity and
rising demands
provided entrepreneurs with profits that could be
reinvested to take advantage of
new
technologies to further expand capacity, or to
seek alternative investment opportunities.
■
Also, the
availability of jobs in railway Jj construction
attracted many rural laborers accustomed to
seasonal
and
temporary
employment.
When
the
work
was
completed,
many
moved
to
other
construction jobs or
to factory work in cities and towns, where they
became part of an expanding
working
class.
10
、
The word
A. Anticipated
B. accelerated
C. spread
D.
started
11
、
Paragraph 4
implies which of the following about the
transformation in rail transportation?
A. Because railway construction
employed mostly rural laborers, unemployment
increased among
urban workers.
B. It resulted in more
trade within the country, but less trade with
markets that could be reached
only by
ocean shipping.
C. It made
shipping freight overland to distant markets less
expensive.
D. It resulted
in higher wages for factory workers.
12
、
The phrase
A. in need of
B. used to
C.
tired of
D. encouraged by
13
、
Look at the
four squares [
■
] that
indicate where the following sentence could be
added to the
passage.
The first steam-powered locomotives
were slow but they rapidly improved in speed and
carrying
capacity.
14
、
Direction: An
introductory sentence for a brief summary of the
passage is provided below.
Complete the
summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that
express the most important
ideas in the
passage. Some sentences do not belong in the
summary because they express ideas
that
are not presented in the passage or are minor
ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2
points.
The
coming
of
the
Industrial
Revolution
in
eighteenth-century
Britain
depended
on
the
development of the steam engine to
power machinery.
Answer
Choices
A.
For
years,
historians
disregarded
the
issue
of
energy
as
a
major
element
in
the
rise
of
the
Industrial
revolution
and
focused
instead
on
technological
developments
and
increased
production.
B.
The
introduction
and
growth
of
steam-
powered
rail
transport
was
a
major
factor
in
Britain's
economic expansion
during the Industrial Revolution.
C.
An
expansion
of
the
Industrial
Revolution
outside
Great
Britain
occurred
when
British
industries began to
import raw cotton and high-quality iron.
D. By 1850, the use of
steam power in Britain's
mills, mines,
and iron industry
made Britain a
world leader in the production of
cotton cloth and iron.
E.
Since the basic infrastructure was in place, the
Industrial Revolution fueled itself with enlarging
markets requiring ever more expansion
of factories and workforce.
F. By the end of the 1800s, railway
construction attracted so many laborers that
factories could not
find enough workers
to keep up with increasing sales. 7
Survival of Plants and Animals in
Desert Conditions
The
harsh
conditions
in
deserts
are
intolerable
for
most
plants
and
animals.
Despite
these
conditions, however,
many varieties of plants and animals have adapted
to deserts in a number of
ways. Most
plant tissues die if their water content falls too
low: the nutrients that feed plants are
transmitted
by
water;
water
is
a
raw
material
in
the
vital
process
of
photosynthesis;
and
water
regulates the
temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb
heat and because water vapor lost to the
atmosphere
through
the
leaves
helps
to
lower
plant
temperatures.
Water
controls
the
volume
of
plant
matter produced. The distribution of plants within
different areas of desert is also controlled
by water. Some areas, because of their
soil texture, topographical position, or distance
from rivers
or groundwater, have
virtually no water available to plants, whereas
others do.
The nature of
plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on
the fact that they have to adapt to the
prevailing aridity. There are two
general classes of vegetation: long-lived
perennials, which may
be succulent
(water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody,
and annuals or ephemerals, which
have a
short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand
immediately after rain.
The
ephemeral
plants
evade
drought.
Given
a
year
of
favorable
precipitation,
such
plants
will
develop
vigorously
and
produce
large
numbers
of
flowers
and
fruit.
This
replenishes
the
seed
content
of
the
desert
soil.
The
seeds
then
lie
dormant
until
the
next
wet
year,
when
the
desert
blooms again.
The perennial vegetation
adjusts to the aridity by mear of various
avoidance mechanisms. Most
desert
plants
are
11
probably
best
classified
as
xerophytes.
They
possess
drought-resisting
adaptations: loss of water through the
leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering
waxy
leaf
surfaces,
by
the
closure
of
pores
during
the
hottest
times
to
reduce
water
loss,
am
by
the
rolling
up
or
shedding
of
leaves
at
the
beginning
of
the
dry
season.
Some
xerophytes,
the
succulents (including cacti), store
water in their structures. Another way of
countering drought is
to have a limited
amount of mass above ground and to have extensive
root networks below ground.
It is not
unusual for the roots of some desert perennials to
extend downward more than ten meters.
Some plants are woody in type
—
an adaptation designed to
prevent collapse of the plant tissue
when water stress produces wilting.
Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte.
These have
adapted
to
the
environment
by
the
development
of
long
taproots
that
penetrate
downward
until
they approach the assured water supply
provided by groundwater. Among these plants are
the date
palm,
tamarisk,
and
mesquite.
They
commonly
grow
near
stream
channels,
springs,
or
on
the
margins of lakes.
Animals
also
have
to
adapt
to
desert
conditions,
and
they
may
do
it
through
two
forms
of
behavioral adaptation: they either
escape or retreat. Escape involves such actions as
aestivation, a
condition of prolonged
dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce
their metabolic rate and
body
temperature during the hot season or during very
dry spells.
Seasonal
migration is another form of escape, especially
for large mammals or birds. The term 8
retreat is applied I to the short-term
escape behavior of desert animals, and it usually
assumes the
pattern of a daily rhythm.
Birds shelter in nests, rock overhangs, trees, and
dense shrubs to avoid
the hottest hours
of the day, while mammals like the kangaroo rat
burrow underground.
Some
animals
have
behavioral,
physiological,
and
morphological
(structural)
adaptations
that
enable them to
withstand extreme conditions. For example, the
ostrich has 1 plumage that is so
constructed
that
the
feathers
are
long
but
not
too
dense.
When
conditions
are
hot,
the
ostrich
erects them on its 1
back, thus increasing the thickness of the barrier
between solar radiation and
the
skin.
The
sparse
distribution
of
the
feathers,
however,
also
allows
considerable
lateral
air
movement over the skin surface, thereby
permitting further heat loss by rmore,
the birds orient themselves carefully
with regard to the Sun an0 gently flap their wings
to increase
convection cooling.
PARAGRAPH 1
The
harsh
conditions
in
deserts
are
intolerable
for
most
plants
and
animals.
Despite
these
conditions, however,
many varieties of plants and animals have adapted
to deserts in a number of
ways. Most
plant tissues die if their water content falls too
low: the nutrients that feed plants are
transmitted
by
water;
water
is
a
raw
material
in
the
vital
process
of
photosynthesis;
and
water
regulates the
temperature of a plant by its ability to absorb
heat and because water vapor lost to the
atmosphere
through
the
leaves
helps
to
lower
plant
temperatures.
Water
controls
the
volume
of
plant
matter produced. The distribution of plants within
different areas of desert is also controlled
by water. Some areas, because of their
soil texture, topographical position, or distance
from rivers
or groundwater, have
virtually no water available to plants, whereas
others do.
1
、
According
to
paragraph
1,
water
provides
all
of
the
following
essential
functions
for
plants
EXCEPT
A. improving plants' ability to absorb
sunlight
B. preventing
plants from becoming overheated
C. transporting nutrients
D. serving as a raw material for
photosynthesis
PARAGRAPH 3
The
ephemeral
plants
evade
drought.
Given
a
year
of
favorable
precipitation,
such
plants
will
develop
vigorously
and
produce
large
numbers
of
flowers
and
fruit.
This
replenishes
the
seed
content
of
the
desert
soil.
The
seeds
then
lie
dormant
until
the
next
wet
year,
when
the
desert
blooms again. 9
2
、
Paragraph 3
suggests that during a dry year ephemerals
A. produce even more seeds
than in a wet year
B. do
not sprout from their seeds
C. bloom much later than in a wet year
D. are more plentiful than
perennials
PARAGRAPH 2
The
nature of plant life in deserts is also highly
dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to
the
prevailing aridity. There are two
general classes of vegetation: long-lived
perennials, which may
be succulent
(water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody,
and annuals or ephemerals, which
have a
short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand
immediately after rain.
PARAGRAPH 3
The
ephemeral
plants
evade
drought.
Given
a
year
of
favorable
precipitation,
such
plants
will
develop
vigorously
and
produce
large
numbers
of
flowers
and
fruit.
This
replenishes
the
seed
content
of
the
desert
soil.
The
seeds
then
lie
dormant
until
the
next
wet
year,
when
the
desert
blooms again.
3
、
How
is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3?
A. Paragraph 2 provides a general
description of desc plants, and paragraph 3
provides a scientific
explanation for
these observations.
B.
Paragraph
2
divides
desert
plants
into
two
categories,
and
paragraph
3
provides
further
information about one of these
categories.
C.
Paragraph
2
proposes
one
way
of
dividing
desert
plants
into
categories,
and
paragraph
3
explains one problem with this method
of classification.
D.
Paragraph
2
discusses
two
categories
of
desert
plants,
and
paragraph
3
introduces
a
third
category of plants.
4
、
In saying that
ephemerals will develop
author means
that their development will be
A. Sudden
B.
Early
C. Gradual
D. strong and healthy
PARAGRAPH 4
The perennial vegetation
adjusts to the aridity by mear of various
avoidance mechanisms. Most
desert
plants
are
probably
best
classified
as
xerophytes.
They
possess
drought-resisting
adaptations: loss of water through the
leaves is reduced by means of dense hairs covering
waxy
leaf
surfaces,
by
the
closure
of
pores
during
the
hottest
times
to
reduce
water
loss,
am
by
the
rolling
up
or
shedding
of
leaves
at
the
beginning
of
the
dry
season.
Some
xerophytes,
the
succulents (including cacti), store
water in their structures. Another way of
countering drought is
10
to have a limited amount of mass above
ground and to have extensive root networks below
ground.
It is not unusual for the roots
of some desert perennials to extend downward more
than ten meters.
Some plants are woody
in type
—
an adaptation
designed to prevent collapse of the plant tissue
when water stress produces wilting.
Another class of desert plant is the phreatophyte.
These have
adapted
to
the
environment
by
the
development
of
long
taproots
that
penetrate
downward
until
they approach the assured water supply
provided by groundwater. Among these plants are
the date
palm,
tamarisk,
and
mesquite.
They
commonly
grow
near
stream
channels,
springs,
or
on
the
margins of lakes.
5
、
The word
A. eliminating
B. making use of
C. acting against
D. experiencing
6
、
According to
paragraph 4, some desert plants with root systems
that are extraordinarily well
developed
have
A. relatively little
growth aboveground
B. very
leafy aboveground structures
C. nonwoody plant tissue resistant to
wilting
D. water stored
within their roots
7
、
The word
A. pure
B. diminished
C.
guaranteed