-bonnie
Motivation of words
分类
：
onomatopoeic motivation, morphological
motivation, semantic motivation,
etymological motivation.
Types of meaning
:
grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~&
associative
~(connotative~, stylistic~,
affective ~, collocative ~,)
Primary meaning
is the only
meaning that a word had when it was first created.
Derived meanings
are the
meanings that a word gets from the primary meaning
at different stages of its development in
the course of time.
同义关系
Synonyms
are
words which share the same or nearly the same
meaning with each other but
different
in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms
and relative synonyms which result from
borrowing, dialects and regional
English, figurative and euphemistic use of words,
coincidence with
idiomatic expressions.
There exists the difference between or among
synonyms in terms of their
denotation,
connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or
complete synonyms are words which
are
identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative
synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly
the same in denotation, but embrace
different shades of meaning or different degrees
of a given
quality.
3.
Sources of
Synonyms
1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and
regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic
use of words 4) Coincidence with
idiomatic expressions
4.
What are the
characteristics of antonyms?
1) Antonyms are classified on the basis
of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more
than one
meaning can have more than one
antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
4) Contrary
terms are gradable
antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so
each has its own corresponding
opposite.
5.
同形同音异义关系
Homonymy is one of the features of
words that a word is different in meaning
from another, but either identical both
in sound and spelling or identical only in sound
or spelling with
the other Homonyms
generally fall into three classes: perfect
homonyms (same name); homographs
(same
spelling) and homophones
（
some
sound
）
. Perfect homonyms are
those words identical both
in sound and
spelling, but different in meaning. Homophones
refer to the words identical only in sound
but different in spelling and meaning
6.
上下义关系
:Hyponymy
deals with the relationship of semantic
inclusion.
That is, the meaning
of a more specific word is included in
that of another more general word. Superordinates
refer to some
general words;
subordinates denote those more specific words.
Hyponymy can be described in terms
of
tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates
above the lower subordinates. But their status
either as superordinate or subordinate
is relative to other terms. For example, horse,
dog, pig are
subordinates in relation
to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and
boar, Animal itself becomes
a
subordinate of creature. And creature in turn
becomes
7.
词义变化的种类
There
are five types of meaning, changes
:
extension, narrowing, degradation,
elevation, and transfer among which
extension and narrowing are the most common.
Changes in
meaning can be accounted for
from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason,
class reason, and
psychological reason)
and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the
influx of borrowing, and analogy).
8.
词义的扩大
Extension is a process by which a word
with a specialized sense is generalized to cover
a broader or less
9.
Definite
concept.
Compare the
following
；词义的缩小
Narrowing is
a process by which a word of
wider
meaning acquires a specialized
sense
；词义的升华
Elevation is a
process by which a word
moves from a
derogatory or neutral sense to a neutral and/or
appreciative
sense
；词义的降格
Degradation is a
process by which a word of reputation slides into
a pejorative
use,
；词义的转移
Transfer is a
process by which a word denoting one thing changes
to refer to a different but related
thing. Paper serves as an example. This
word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,
which was
1
once
used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made
from rags, wood, straw and the like, but the
product has retained the same name.
There is associated transfer. There are other
kinds of transfer,
such as, concrete to
abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of
sensation.
10.
语境
的种类
:
非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。
There are two types of
contexts:
linguistic context
and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context).
Extra-linguistic context refers to those
situations and features which are not
directly a part of the language in use but which
either contribute
in conveying a
message or have an influence on language use.
Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is
further subdivided into lexical context
and grammatical context. By lexical context we
mean the words
that occur together with
the word in question. By grammatical context we
mean that the meanings of a
word may be
influenced by the structure in which it occurs.
11.
语境的作用：
Three
major functions of context:
elimination
of ambiguity, indication of referents,
provision of clues for inferring word-
meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1)
definition 2)
explanation 3) example 4)
synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant
details 8) word structure
12.
英语习语的特点
The
characteristics of idioms include semantic unity
and structural stability.
1
3.
英语习语的分类
According to the
criterion of their grammatical functions, we
classify them into
idioms nominal in
nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal
in nature, idioms adverbial in
nature,
and sentence idioms. The stylistic features are
characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and
literary expressions.
14.
英语习语的使用
The use
of idioms
involves their stylistic
features, rhetorical features , and
variations of idioms.
15.
英语习语的修辞色彩
The
rhetorical features of idioms
are
represented with phonetic
manipulation
( alliteration
头韵法
and
rhyme
叠韵
) , lexical
manipulation (
reiteration
复用
,
repetition
重
复
and
juxtaposition
反义词叠用
), figures
of speech ( simile
明喻
,
metaphor
暗喻
,
metonymy
转喻
,
synecdoche
借代
,
personification
拟人
,
euphemism
委婉
)
16.
英语习语的变异形式
In
the variations, addition, deletion, replacement,
position-shifting and
dismembering are
involved in the changes in idioms constituents .
17.
Associative
meaning :
1) associative meaning is the
secondary meaning supplemented to the
conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from
the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended
and
indeterminated. 3)It is liable to
the influence of such factors as culture ,
experience, religion,
geographical
region, class background,education, etc.
4)Associative meaning comprises four types :
connotative, stylistic, affective, and
collocative.
词典的种类
There are four types of
dictionaries with their features mentioned in this
parts:
(1)
monolingual and
bilingual dictionaries, (2) linguistic and
encyclopedic dictionaries, (3) unabridged,
desk and pocket dictionaries, (4)
specialized dictionaries. A monolingual dictionary
is a dictionary
which is written in one
language.
18.
A
bilingual dictionary
is one in which
two languages are involved.
19.
A linguistic dictionary
is a dictionary which aims at defining
words and explaining their usages in
the language.
20.
An encyclopedic dictionary
is one in which encyclopedic information is
provided along with the
general
information as in a linguistic dictionary.
21.
An
encyclopedia
is a dictionary which only
provides encyclopedic information concerning each
headword.
22.
An unabridged dictionary
is an unshortened dictionary with at
least 200,000 headwords that can
supply
a great quantity of basic, information about a
word.
23.
A desk
dictionary
is a medium-sized dictionary
containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000.
24.
A pocket
dictionary
is a dictionary which has
about 50,000 entries or fewer.
2
第一章
37.
What is word
?
词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释
。
1) A word is a minimal free
form
of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound
;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function
alone in a
sentence.
以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释
is the relationship
between sound and meaning?
1)There is ‘no logical
relationship between the sound and actual
thing.e.g. dog. Cat
2)The relationship between
them is conventional.
3) In different languages the same
concept can be represented by different sounds.
is relationship between
sound and form?
1)The
written form of a natural language is the written
record of the oral form. Naturally the written
form should agree with the oral form,
such as English language.
2)This is
fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e.
Old English
With the development of the
language, more and more differences occur between
the two.
43.
What
is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the
total number of the words in a language, but it
can
stand for all the words used in a
particular historical period. Vocabulary also
refers to all the words of a
given
dialect, given book, a given discipline and the
words possessed by an individual person.
are the
characteristics of basic word stock?
1) All national character2) Stability3)
Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability
49.
根据词的
use
frequency
划分出的基本词之外，还有一类词叫作
None basic
vocabulary,
非基本词
有几大特点？或者是几大分
类
？
1) Terminology e.g.
sonata, algebra2) Jargon e.g. Bottom line
( Jargon ) 3) Slang e.g. smoky, bear (
Slang ) 4) Argot e.g. persuader5) Dialectal words
e.g. station
( AusE = ranch ) bluid (
ScotE= blood)6) Archaisms e.g. wilt (will)7)
Neologisms e.g. email
( Neologisms
)beaver
是
girl
的
slang
表达方式，但是二者之间存在着
Stylistic
difference
constitutes the larger number among
English vocabulary,
content
or functional
words ? Answer :
Content
words
What is native words? Answer :
(1) By origin, English words can be
classified into native words and
borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought
to Britain in the
fifth century by the
German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the
Jutes, thus know asAnglo-Saxon
words.
(3) Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in
number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000,
but they form the mainstream of the
basic word stock and stand at the core of the
language
51.
什么叫
borrowed
words?
Answer: (1) words taken over
from foreign languages are know as
borrowed words or loan words or
borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated
that English
borrowings constitute 80
percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The
English language has vast
debts .In any
dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.
60.
Three main
sources of new words :
1)The rapid
development of modern science and technology
2)Social, economic and
political changes;3)The influence of other
cultures and language
61.
Modes of Vocabulary
Development
1)creation 2) semantic change 3)
borrowing2)Semantic
change
（还包括外来词的
Semantic loans
）
Elevation, degradation,
extension, narrowing, transfer
外
来词可以被称作
borrowed
words ,
因此又可以被称作
.
重点句：
borrowed words are also
known as
loaned words
.
恢复古英语的用词是美国英语的一大特色
Reviving
archaic or obsolete words also
contributes to the growth of English
vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is
especially trueof
American English.
67.
据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少<
/p>
?
3
答案：
50,000 to 60,000
他们的来源是
(Anglo_Saxon tongue )<
/p>
第二次世界大战以后，
大量外来词进入英
语中，如：
Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu,
这些词属于英语词汇发展的
Present - day
English
Vocabulary
注意：第二章出大题
的内容无非就是请简述印欧语系的发展与组成。
Morphemes :
The
minimal meaningful units in a language are known
as morphemes. In other words,
the
morphemes is the smallest functioning unit in
composition of words
what are the types of morphemes
?
答案：
Free morphemes and bound
morphemes
。
79.
Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of
other morphemes and are considered
to
be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings
in themselves and can be used as free
grammatical units in sentences. 3) They
are identical with root words, as each of them
consists of a
single free rootwords ,as
each of them consists of a single free root 4)
free morphemes are free roots.
morphemes:
1) Morphemes
which cannot occur as separate words are bound..
2) The
y
are bound to other
morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes
include two types: bound root
and affix
affix
分为两类
:
inflectional and derivational affixes.
Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the end
of
words to indicate grammatical
relationships are inflectional, thus known as
inflectional morphemes.
Derivational
affixes:
1)derivational affixes are
affixes added to other morphemes to create now
words.2) Derivational affixes can be
further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
root :
1) a root is the
basic form of a word which cannot be further
analyzed without total loss of
identity.
2) the root,
whether free or bound, generally carries the main
component of
meaning in a word
3) a ’root is that part of
a word form that
remains when all
inflectional and derivational affixes have been
d.
问
题：在英语中
,
主
要的构词法分
为哪几种
?
答案：有七种
:1) Affixation 2)
Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5)
clipping 6) acronymy 7)
blending
有三种最常用
:
affixation , compounding and conversion
what are the
characteristics of compounds
?What are the d
ifference between
compounds and
free phrases
?
答案：
1) phonetic features2)
Semantic features3) Grammatical features
最常见的三种
词性
: 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective
compounds 3) verb compounds
84.
问
题：
‘
blending’
分为哪四类合成词
？
1. head
+ tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word +
tail
85.
问题
:
绝大多数
blending
都是什么
词性
?
答案：
nouns
，
The overwhelming majority of
blends are
nouns; very few are verbs
and adjectives are even fewer.
86.
问题：
截短法
clip
ping
分为哪四类
？答案：
There
are four common types of clipping :1) Front
clipping2) Back clipping3) Front and
back clipping4) Phrase
clipping
要注意
clipping
的例子有一个特殊
变化：
fridge
( refrigerator
截短之后在
i, g
中间加一个
d ) ,
还有拼写发生变化，比如说：
coke ( coca
cola)
问题：
Compounding
又被称作什么法？
答案：
composition
第五章：
Word Meaning The
meanings of‘Meaning’
指的是哪三个层次的内容
?
意义中的含义的三个
层次的划分
: What are the meanings of ‘Meaning’?
1) Reference
(
有
reference
的词必然具有
sense,
也必然具有
Concept ) 2) Concept(
能够形成
Concept
的词必然有
reference ) 3) Sense
(
有
sense
的
词未必具有
concept ,
也未必具有
reference) (Conjunction
, prepositions, adverbs,
它们都是具有
sense
的词
,
但是未必具有
reference ,
也未必具有
concept,
例如：
if, but, probably :
它们有
sense,
但
没有
concept )
4