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1The
scope
of
linguistics:
phonetics,
phonology,
morphology,
syntax,
semantics,
pragmatics,
sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics.
1.
Some important
distinctions in linguistics
1)
Prescriptive
vs.
descriptive--If
a
linguistic
study
aims
to
describe
and
analyze
the
language
people actually
use, it is said to be descriptive, if the
linguistic study aims to lay down rules for
“correct
and
standard”
behavior
in
using
language,
i.e.
to
tell
people
what
they
should
say
and
what they should not
say, it is said to be prescriptive.
2)
Synchronic vs. diachronic--A language at some
point of time in history is a synchronic study;
the description of a language as it
changes through time is a diachronic study.
3) Speech and writing---Speech is more
important: a. from linguistic evolution b. needed
to record
speech, can be spoken but
many languages still not writing. c. play a
greater role than writing in
everyday
communication.
4).
Language
and
parole---Langue
refers
to
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of a speech community. Parole refers to the
realization of langue in actual use.
5)
Competence and performance---
Competence
as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his
language, and performance the actual
realization of this knowledge in linguistic
communication.
6) Traditional grammar
and modern linguistics
Modern linguistics differs from
traditional grammar:
a.
linguistics is descriptive while
traditional grammar is prescriptive.
b.
Modern
linguistics regards the spoken language as
primary, not the written
c.
Modern linguistics differs from
traditional grammar also in that it does not force
languages
into a Latin-based framework.
2.
Language is a
system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
3.
The feature of language:
a.
language is a
system, i.e., elements of language are combined
according to rules.
b.
Language is
arbitrary.
c.
Language is symbolic.
4.
Design
features:
a.
Arbitrariness: there is no logical
connection between meanings and sounds.
b.
Productivity:
it makes possible the construction and
interpretation of new signals by its
users.
c.
Duality: language is a system, which
consists of two sets of structures, or two levels.
d.
Displacement:
language can be used to refer to things which are
present or not present,
real or
imagined matters in the past, present, or future,
or in far-away palces.
e.
Culture transmission
Chapter
two Phonology
1.
Phonetics is defined as the study of
the phonic medium of language; it is concerned
with
all the sounds that occur in the
world’s languages.
2.
Three
branches
of
phonetics:
articulatory
phonetics,
auditory
phoneticsthe
(study
of
the
physical
properties of the sounds produced in speech) and
acoustic phonetics
3.
Three important areas of organs of
speech:
Pharyngeal cavity
----the throat
The oral cavity---the
mouth
Nasal cavity----the nose
4.
The difference between broad
transcription and narrow transcription:
Broad transcription is the
transcription normally used in dictionaries and
teaching textbooks
for general
purposes.
Narrow
transcription is the transcription needed and used
by the phoneticians in their study of
speech sounds.
5.
Two ways of classification of English
consonants: one is in terms of manner of
articulation
and the other
is in terms of place of articulation.
6.
Types
of
English
consonants:
stops,
fricatives,
affricates,
liquids,
nasals,
glides,
bilabial,
labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal,
velar, glottal.
7.
Phonology
aims
to
discover
how
speech
sounds
in
a
language
form
patterns
and
how
these sounds are used to convey meaning
in linguistic communication.
8.
IPA
(International Phonetic Alphabet):
9.
A
standardized and internationally accepted system
of phonetic transcription.
10.
Phoneme
[
音位
]: an abstract
phonological unit of distinctive value that is
represented or
realized by a certain
phone
11.
3.
Allophones
[
音位变体
]:
the
different
phones
which
can
represent
a
phoneme
in
different phonetic
environments
12.
Minimal
pairs: when two different forms are
identical
（完全相同）
in every way
except
for
one
sound
segment
which
occurs
in
the
same
place
in
the
strings,
the
two
sound
combinations are said to form a minimal
pair
.
(till,kill)
13.
Sequential
rules:
there
are
rules
that
govern
the
combination
of
sounds
in
a
particular
language.
14.
Assimilation
rule
assimilates
one
sound
to
another
by
“copying”
a
feature
of
a
sequential
phoneme, thus
making the two phones similar.
15.
Deletion
rule: a sound is to be deleted although it is
orthographically represented.
16.
Suprasegmental features: the phonemic
features that occur above the level of the
segments.
17.
Two
kinds of stress
：
word stress and sentence stress
Sentence stress: the relative force
given to the components of a sentence
18.
Tone: pitch
variations, which are caused by the differing
rates of vibration of the vocal cords.
19.
Intonation:
when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to
the sentence rather than the word in
isolation, they are collectively known
as intonation.
a.
falling-tone
rising tone
fall-rise tone
Chapter 3
Morphology
1.
Morphology:
the study of the internal structure of words, and
the rules by which words are
formed.
morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit
in a language. A morpheme cannot be divided
without althering or destroying its
meaning
abstract (theoretical) units
Allomorph: any of the different forms
of a morpheme.
Stem is any morpheme or
combination of morphemes to which an inflectional
affix can
be added.
inflectional
morphemes
indicate
the
syntactic
relation
between
words
and
function
as
grammatical markers.
Derivational morphemes make explicit
the word class assignment of the word.
Chapter 4 Syntax
1.
Syntax is a
branch of linguistics that studies how words are
combined to form sentences and
the
rules that govern the formation of sentences.
2.
Category: a
group of linguistic items which fulfill the same
or similar functions in a particular
language such as a sentence, a noun
phrase or a verb.
3.
Word level categories are divided into
two kinds: major lexical categories and minor
lexical
categories.
4.
Called
phrases: syntactic units that are built around a
certain word category.
5.
Phrases that are formed of more than
one word usually contain the following elements:
a.
head: the word
around which a phrase is formed
b.
specifier: the
words on the left side of the heads are said to
function.
c.
Complements: the words on the right
side of the heads.
6.
Phrase
structure
rule:
such
special
type
of
grammatical
mechanism
that
regulates
the
arrangement of elements
that make up phrase.
7.
The XP rule: XP
—
(
specifier)---X(complement)
8.
Coordination
structure:
some
structures
are
formed
by
joining
two
or
more
elements
of
the
same type with the help of a
conjunction such as and or or.
9.
The principle
of coordination rule:
a.
there
is
no
limit
on
the
number
of
coordinated
categories
that
can
appear
prior
to
the
conjunction.
b.
A category at any level can be
coordinated.
c.
Coordinated categories must be of the
same type.
d.
The
category
type
of
the
coordinate
phrase
is
identical
to
the
category
type
of
the
elements being
conjoined.
10.
Specifiers have both special semantic
and syntactic roles. Semantically, they help make
more
precise the meaning of the head.
Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase
boundary.
11.
Determiners serve as the specifier of
Ns while qualifiers typically function as the
specifiers of
Vs and degree words as
the specifiers of As and sometimes Ps.
12.
Complements
are
themselves
phrases
and
provide
information
about
entities
and
locations
whose existence is implied by the
meaning of the head.
13.
Complementizers: words which introduce
the sentence complement.
14.
The sentence introduced by the
complementizer is called a complement clause.
15.
Thus the whole italicized part in the
above sentence is called a complement phrase and
the
construction in which the
complement phrase is embedded is called
matrix clause
.
16.
Modifier:
which specify optionally expressible properties of
heads.
17.
The S
rule: S--- NP
VP
18.
The XP rule:
XP---(specifier)X(complement)
Chapter 5
Semantics
1.
Semantics: is the study of meaning.
2.
The naming
theory: one of the oldest notions concerning
meaning, and also the most primitive
one.
3.
The limitation of this theory:
a.
this
theory
seems
applicable
to
nouns
only,
but
verbs,
adjectives,
and
adverbs
are
definitely not
labels of objects
b.
within the category of nouns, there are
nouns which denote things that do not exist in the
real world at all, and also nouns that
do not refer to physical object, but abstract
notions.
4.
The
conceptualist view: there is no direct link
between a linguistic form and what it refers to;
rather, in the interpretation of
meaning they are linked through the mediation of
concepts in
the mind.
5.
Referent: the
object in the world of experience; and thought or
reference refers to concept.
6.
Contextualism:
meaning
should
be
studied
in
terms
of
situation,
use,
context---elements
closely linked with language behavior.
7.
Behaviorism:
to define the meaning of a language form as
the “ situation in which the speaker
utters it and the response it calls
forth in the hearer.”
8.
Sense is
concerned with the inherent meaning of the
linguistic form. It is the collection of
all the features of the linguistic
form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.
9.
Reference
means what a linguistic form refers to in the
real, physical world; it deals with
the
relationship
between
the
linguistic
element
and
the
non-linguistic
world
of
experience.w
10.
Synonymy: the
sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words
that are close in meaning.
11.
The
classification of synonymy:
a.
dialectal
synonyms---synonyms used in different regional
dialects
b.
stylistic synonyms----synonyms
differing in style
c.
synonyms that differ in their emotive
or evaluative meaning
d.
collocational
synonyms
e.
semantically different synonyms
< br>（
amaze,astound
）
12.
Polysemy
（多义现象）
:
the same one word may have more than one meaning.
13.
Homonymy(
同音异议，同形异义
):
the
phenomenon
that
words
having
different
meanings
have the same form, i.e., different
words are identical in sound or spelling, or in
both.
14.
Homophones(
同音异议
):
two words are identical in sound
15.
Homographs
（同形异义
):
two words are identical in spelling
16.
Complete
hemonyms: two words are identical in both sound
and spelling.
17.
Hyponymy
（下义关系）
:
the sense relation between a more general, more
inclusive word and
a more specific
word.
18.
Superordinate
（上义词）
: the
word which is more general in meaning.
19.
Hyponyms
（下义词）
:
the more specific words.
20.
Hyponyms of the same superorinate are
co-hyponyms to each other.
21.
Antonymy:
words that are opposite in meaning.
22.
The
classification of antonymy:
a.
gradable
antonyms:
some
antonyms
are
gradable
because
there
are
often
intermediate
forms between
the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of
degree.
b.
Complementary
antonyms:
a
pair
of
complementary
antonyms
is
characterized
by
the
feature
that the denial of one member of the pair implies
the assertion of the other.
c.
Relational
opposites: pairs of words that exhibit the
reversal of a relational opposites.
23.
Sense
relations between sentences:
a.
X is
synonymous with Y
. in terms of truth
condition, if X is true, Y is true, and if X is
false, Y is false.
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