muscles-绝交
Tokyo Trial
Occupation
official
turned
historian
Richard
B.
Finn
notes,
War
II
was
the
first
major
conflict
in
history in
which the victors carried
out trials and punishment of thousands of
persons in the defeated nations for
'crimes against peace' and 'crimes against
humanity,' two new
and
broadly
defined
categories
of
international
crime.
For
most
people,
this
calls
to
mind
the
trials
of
Nazi
war
criminals
at
Nuremberg
.
But
an
equally
difficult,
fascinating
,
and
controversial
set
of
trials
occurred
in
Tokyo,
under
the
watchful
eye
of
Supreme
Commander
Douglas MacArthur.
The
Tokyo
trials
were
not
the
only
forum
for
the
punishment
of
Japanese
war
criminals,
merely the most
visible. In fact, the Asian countries victimized
by the Japanese war machine
tried
(
try
)far more Japanese -- an
estimated five thousand,
executing
as many as 900 and sentencing
more
than
half
to
life
in
prison
.
But
with
Japan
under
the
control
of
the
Americans,
the
most
prominent
Japanese war
leaders came under MacArthur's
jurisdiction.
The
Potsdam
declaration
of
July
1945
had
called
for
trial
s
and
purge
s
of
those
who
had
disagreement, both among the
Allies and within the U.S., about whom to try and
how to try them.
Despite the lack of
consensus
, MacArthur lost no
time, ordering the arrest of thirty-nine suspects
-- most of them members of General
Tojo's
war cabinet
-- on
September 11, just over a week after
the surrender. Perhaps caught off
guard, Tojo tried to
commit
suicide
, but was
resuscitate
d with
the help of American doctors eager to
deny him even that means of escape.
On
October
6
MacArthur
received
a
directive,
soon
approved
by
the
other
Allied
powers,
granting him the
authority to
proceed with
the major trials and giving him basic guidelines
for
their conduct. As they had done in
Germany, the Allies set up three broad categories.
charges
alleging
planned and directed the war. Class B
and C charges, which could be leveled at Japanese
of any
rank, covered
In
early
November,
the
supreme
commander
was
given
authority
to
purge
other
war
time
leaders
from
public
life.
Again,
MacArthur
moved
quickly:
by
December
8
he
had
set
up
an
international
prosecution
section
under
former
U.S.
assistant
attorney
general
Joseph
Keenan,
which began gathering evidence and
preparing for the
high-profile
Class A trials.
On January 19, 1946, MacArthur
announced the establishment of the International
Military
Tribunal for the Far East
(IMFTE), and a few weeks later selected its eleven
judges from names
submitted
to
him
by
the
governments
sitting
on
the
Allied
Far
Eastern
Commission.
He
also
named
Keenan
the chief prosecutor
and
Australian Sir William
Webb
the tribunal's president.
Twenty-eight
high-ranking
political
and
military
leaders
were
indict
ed
on
55
counts
of
against peace,
conventional war crimes, and crimes against
humanity.
The
Tokyo
trials
began
on
May
3,
1946,
and
lasted
two
and
a
half
years.
Although
an
improvement over the hasty Manila
trials, which were also organized by MacArthur and
resulted
in
the
executions
of
Generals
Yamashita
and
Homma,
the
Tokyo
trials
have
been
criticize
d
as
another
example
of
justice.
One
of
the
more
authoritative
studies
condemn
s
them
strongly:
shaky
. We have seen that its
process was seriously flawed. We have
examined the
verdict
's
inadequacy as history.
On
November
4,
1948,
Webb
announced
that
all
of
the
defendants
had
been
found
guilty
.
Seven
were sentenced to death, sixteen to
life terms
, two to lesser
terms, two had died during the
trials
and one had been found
insane
. After reviewing
their decisions, MacArthur expressed his
regrets
but
praised
the
work
of
the
tribunal
and
upheld
the
verdicts.
Although
calling
the
duty
repugnant
to
me,
infallible
but I can
conceive of no judicial process where
greater safeguard was made to evolve
justice.
“
On
December 23, 1948, General Tojo and six others
were hung at Sugamo prison. MacArthur,
afraid
of
embarrassing
and
antagonizing
the
Japanese
people,
defied
(
defy
)
the
wishes
of
President Truman and barred photography
of any kind, instead bringing in four members of
the
Allied Council to act as official
witnesses.
13 Days
In 1956
Fidel Castro
led a
guerrilla force
, the 26th of
July Movement, in a revolt against
the
government of Fulgencio Batista. In 1959 Batista
fled the country
。
Cuban
leader
Fidel
Castro
shakes
hands
with
Premier
Nikita
Khrushchev
of
the
Union
of
Soviet
Socialist
Republics.
Castro
and
Khrushchev
first
met
in
1960
during
a
United
Nations
General Assembly
in New
York. The two men later established diplomatic
ties that joined their
two nations
together as allies for almost 30 years.
The crisis was the
culmination
of
growing
tension
between
the
United
States
and
Cuba
following
the
Cuban
Revolution
of
1959.
The
revolution
oust
ed
Cuba
’
s
dictator
,
Fulgencio
Batista and
brought to power a government headed by Cuban
revolutionary leader Fidel Castro.
Prior to the revolution,
the
United
States
had
had
significant
influence
in
Cuba
’
s
economic
and
political
affairs,
but
the
Castro
government
refused
to
be
influenced
by
the
United
States.
Castro
also
caused
concern
in
the
United
States
when
he
confiscate
d
property
belonging
to
wealthy
Cubans
and
foreigners
in
an
attempt
to
implement
policies
to
improve
conditions
for
poor and working-class Cubans. Many of
these properties belonged to businesses owned by
U.S.
companies.
Fearing that Castro would establish a
Communist
regime
in Cuba,
the United States applied
economic
pressure, and in 1960 implemented an
embargo
that cut off trade
between the United
States and Cuba.
Castro refused to give in to
the
pressure. He responded by establishing closer
relations with the Communist government
of the USSR. At the time, the USSR and the United
States
were engaged
in
the Cold
War
—
an economic, military,
and diplomatic struggle between
Communist and capitalist nations.
In an effort to
topple
Castro
’
s
government,
the
United
States
trained
and
armed
anti-Castro
Cuban
exile
s living in the United
States. The exiles invaded Cuba in 1961, with a
landing at the
Bay of Pigs.
Castro
’
s army easily
defeated the exiles. His victory during the Bay of
Pigs Invasion
solidified
Castro
’
s control over Cuba.
Most Cubans
resente
d U.S.
intervention
in Cuban
affairs
and they rallied behind Castro,
who declared that Cuba was a Communist nation.
On October 28 the tension
began to subside. In a worldwide radio broadcast
Khrushchev said
he would remove
“offensive”
weapons from
Cuba in return for a U.S
.
pledge
not to invade. He
also
called
for
United
Nations
(UN)
inspectors
to
verify
the
process.
Kennedy
believed
Khrushchev
was
sincere,
but
many
of
Kennedy
’
s
advisers
remained
wary
of
the
Soviets'
intentions.
A further
problem developed when Castro refused to allow UN
oversight
of the
dismantling
process.
Eventually an agreement was reached: The bombers
would be removed within 30 days,